;/;'"> v \ >. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE Ail rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE to SHUTTLE Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 R Copyright, in the United States of America. 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R * ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ( Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin -< Schonfeld Eduard and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LiTT.D. [Samaritans; Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Seadiah. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. r Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 Shark (in part), and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. L A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. f Re—,,.,, v Domlniruez Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the •{ oe"^no » wominguez, Bourbons in Spain. [ *TaneiSCO. A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -{ Series. Mathematical Scholar, 1892. A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. f Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Formerly Assistant-Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls' | Schools. College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. I A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, l893~-j Sanders, Nicholas. 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. [ A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. f Scotland: Geography and See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ Geology (in part). A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J Saravia, Adrian; Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. I Servetus, Michael. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Sardanapalus; Sargon; See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ Sennacherib; Shalmaneser. A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Seistan (in part) ; Shiraz; General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Shushter. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Sentuazint The College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] Mysore Educational Service. L A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. /Scotland: History; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. | Second Sight. A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, D.D. f Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J. Scotland, Church of. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. A. M. Cl. AGNES MUMEL CLAY (Mrs Wilde). f Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources J Senate of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. Sand-grouse; Sandpiper; Scaup; Scoter; Scrub-bird-, Secretary-bird; Seriema; A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Shearwater; Sheath bill; Sheldrake; Shoe-bill; Shoveler; Shrike. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1993 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. No. A. S. P.-P- B. R.* B. S. P. C. A. G. B. C. El. C. F. A. C. F. B. C. H. C. H.* C. H. Ha. C. J. F. C. L. K. C. M. ADOLF GOTTHARD NOREEN, PH.D. C Professor of Scandinavian Languages at the University of Upsala. Author of J coonj!™.,,,-— t.,, Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen; Altislandiscke und Altnorwegische Gram- 1 Scandinavian Languages. matik; &c. I ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. ( Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Scepticism; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Scholasticism. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. I Founder and First President of \ SavinSs Banks: L United States. Scandinavian Civilization HON. BRADFORD RHODES. Head of Banking Firm of Bradford Rhodes & Co. 34th Street National Bank, New York. BERTHA SURTEES PHILLPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of, Girton College, Cambridge. SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B. Admiral. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of Naval J Sea, Command of the; IntelHger.ee, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other 1 Sea-Power Studies ; &c. [ SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East ~( Saka Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Seven Weeks' War (in part) Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. \_ CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J Seiffnioraev Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International \ C16"'>"»6<'- Trade ; &c. I CHARLES HOSE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. I" Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of thej Sai.au/aif Supreme Council of Sarawak. Knight of the Prussian Crown. Author of A \ Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo; &c. l SIR CHARLES HOLROYD. See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR C. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association. Short, Francis Job. Member^ Sforza. LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES JAMES Fox, F.R.G.S. Chief Officer, London Salvage Corps. President of Association of Professional Fire Brigade Officers. Vice-President of National Fire Brigades Union; &c. CHARLES L,ETHBRIDGE KINCSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A. Assistant-Secretary to the. Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. pf Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Salvage Corps. Salisbury, Thomas de Monta- cute, Earl of; C. Mi. " : C. M. W. C. Pf. C. R. B. C. W. R. D. B. Ma. Editor 1 Shore, Jane; I Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of. CARL THEODOR, MIRBT, D.Tn. Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik' im ZeitallerGregor VII.; QueUen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. Senator of 'the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- . potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902- Sardica, Council of. Servia. SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. f Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896- -j Sepulchre, The Holy. 1902. Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. L CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. Author of J Salic Law. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A.. D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. • Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.-Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, ' 1895-1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. L DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. c Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional | Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. L Sanuto, Marino; Schiltberger, Johann. Salamanca: Baltic, 1812. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn D. F. T. D. G. H. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. (" cc»,erzo. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-\ Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. l_ Serenade. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow Samsun; Sardis; of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903 ; -< Scala Nuova' 1904-1905. Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, oohliomaT V Ephesus, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. Schliemann, Heinrich. D. H. D. 0. E. A. M. E. B. T. E. C. B. E. F. E.G. E. Gr. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. J. D. E. K. C. Ed. M. E. M. T. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal Saints, Battle of the; St Vincent, Earl of; St Vincent, Battle of; • Santa Cruz, Marquis of; Seamanship; Seven Years' War: Naval Operations. E.G.* E. R. B. E. Wa. DOUGLAS OWEN. f Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Portsmouth, and at London School of Economics. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer J Shipping of the Society of Nautical Research. Author of Declaration of War; Belligerents and Neutrals; Ports and Docks; &c. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. c Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J SevDhomedusae College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, | yy University College, London. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lirr.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. RT. HON. SIR EDWARD FRY. See the biographical article: FRY, SIR EDWARD. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNKST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; &c. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. , Salutations. - Servites. -: Selborne, 1st Earl of. f Samain, Albert Victor; \ Sermon. l Samos (in part). 1 Samos (in part). J Sarmatae; I Scythia. Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life Scarlatti, Alessandro. EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval -j Shakespeare. Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems; Sec. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lrrr., LL.D. c c ,. -.,«, Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichle des J „ , «S, oairap, Allerthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und Hire Nachbarstamme. [ Seleucia; Snapur l.-III. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian < Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. Seals; Shorthand: Greek and Roman Tachygraphy. EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Scalp: Surgery; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of ] Shock. A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High \ Seleucid Dynasty. Priests. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. f shi Hi.lnrv ln the mention Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton \ st"V- wslorylo the Invention College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. {_ o) Steamships. F. J. G. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. E. Br. REV. FRANK EDWARD BRIGHTMAN, M.A., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. I Pusey Librarian, Oxford, 1884-1903. Author of Liturgies: Eastern and Western; j &c. I F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \ F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. . Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, | London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. Jc«i«*«.,/- ,\ See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). \ a n (tn ?an>- F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. fsais; Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Scarab* and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •< _ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; seraPls5 &c. [Sesostris. F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. • f Sedan: Battle of; Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the\ Seven Weeks' War (in part); World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. I Seven Years' War (in part). F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. /St Helena (in part); Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton. l Senegal' Senussi F. S. FRANCIS STORR. Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier •< Sand, George. d'Acaddmie, Paris. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sanohire. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. •{ President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Serpentine. G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOTJLENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. f In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British 1 Salmon and Salraonidac. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. G. C. T. B. SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER TROUT BARTLEY, K.C.B. (1842-1910). f Founderof the National Penny Bank. M.P. for North Islington, !885-i9o6. Author^ Savings Banks (in f>nrC\ of Schools fjr the People ; Provident Knowledge Papers ; &c. [ G. D. GEORGE DOBSON. f -,ltvlrB,, Mioliai,, Author of Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia; &c. \ M'WKOV, BUCHMl. G. E. D. GEORGE EDWARD DOBSON, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). f Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal J „. Victoria Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; 1 Bnrew- A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. [ G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Scotland. / ,>,„/„,,,. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J. ° of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots, &c. [ Scott- Alexander. G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, J shekinah London. Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-1909. 1 Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Saint-Simon, Due de; See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN. ( Sevigne, Madame de. G. W. R. MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. / Seven Days' Battle; Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. \ Shenandoah Valley Campaigns. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f shahrastani; Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old •{ QUJ-I*- Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I SI "s- H. A. R. HENRY A. ROWLAND. f . ,. -. . , „ See the biographical article: ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS. \ -*( Salisbury, Marquess of; H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of • the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana. Shakespeare: The Shakespeare- Bacon Theory; Sherbrookc, Viscount. Sebastian, St; Sergius, St. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author -s Sauropsida. of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, -j Santorin. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. L. H. H. R. T. I. A. J. A. M. J. A. PI. J. A. R. J. Bt. J. B. A. I.E. J. E. S.* J. F. S. J. G. Fr. J. G. H. J. G. K. J. G. R. J. G. Sc. J. G. Si. J. H. A. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. J. HI. R. {sepsis. | Shakespeare: Bibliography. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Samuel 01 Nehardea; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | Shekel. History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ;&c. I JAMES ALEXANDER MANSON. Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, and Chief Editor, Cassell & Co., Ltd. -| Scotland: Geography (in part). Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; &c. L JOHN ARTHUR PLATT, M.A. • f Professor of Greek in University College, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -s Sappho. College, Cambridge. Author of editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey ; &c. L VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, M.A., D.D. Dean of Wells. Dean of Westminster, 1902-1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the King. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, • Cambridge. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, 1893- 1899. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c. JAMES BARTLETT. f Scaffold: Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, I RAWera»e. London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity | * B ' Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I Snoring. JOSEPH BEAVINGTON ATKINSON. f Formerly Art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern J. Schadow. Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany. \_ H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly J Sanskrit. Secretary and Librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society. JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Scholarship; &c. Scillitan Martyrs. Fellow of St John's College, Author of History of Classical ' Scaliger (in part). REV. JOHN FREDERICK SMITH. Author of Studies in Religion under German Masters; translated G. H. A. von- Ewald's Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Book of Job. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, • Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. Schleiermacher (in part). Saturn (in part). Screw. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. f Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator se|aci.jftn . in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, J Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal Shark (in part). Society of Edinburgh, 1904. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. r Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after "j Schiller. a Century; &c. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; J Salween: River; The Upper Burma Gazetteer. [ Shan States REV. JAMES GILLILAND SIMPSON, M.A. f Canon of St Paul's, London. Principal of Leeds Clergy School and Lecturer of Leeds J Scotland, Episcopal Church of. Parish Church, 1900-1910. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Director I ~\ -! Scribes. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. of the Fitzwilham Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South ^ Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Sculpture (in part). Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. JOHN HORACE ROUND M.A., LL.D. f c Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family! ° History; Peerage and Pedigree. [ Serjeanty. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Savarv University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author o/ Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic | Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L X J. H. V. C. J. K. I. J. L. M. J. M. M. J. P.-B. J. S. F. J. S. R. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. T. S.* J.W. J. W. He. K. G. J. K. S. L. Bo. L. J. S. L.V. L. V.* H. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. r Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada. Formerly _Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j Shipka Pass. and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c. JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN KELLS. Author of Epitome of the / Say, Jean Baptiste; I Senior, Nassau. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient I galamis' C\t>rus Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the ' University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of A History of Rome ; &c. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Sehelling (in part) ; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London •{ Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ (in part). JAMZS GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Editor of the Guardian, London. -{ Sheraton, Thomas. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fSand; Sandstone; Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J c.,,....!!*.. ID h \ on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Scnorl. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,' Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. 1 Severus, Lucius Septimius. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De Amicitia; &c. (St Petersburg (in part) ; Sakhalin (in part) ; Samara: Government (in part) ; Samarkand: City (in part) ; Saratov: Government (in part). JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I Scaphopoda; of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Sea-Serpent (in part). University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f Saint-Simon, Comte de \ (in part). Seamen, Laws relating to; Sheriff. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient -j Schmerling, Anton von. History at the German )ueen's College, London. Empire; &c. Author of Bismarck and the foundation of KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. - Salamanca. Author of The Instruments of the LioNCE BENEDITE. Keeper of the Musee National du Luxembourg, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion < Honour. President of the Societe des Peintres orientalistes francais. Author Histoire des Beaux Arts; &c. Sambuca; Saxhorn; Saxophone; Serpent: Music; Shawm; Shofar. f J Sculpture: Modern French. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Scapolite; of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Scolecite. Mineralogical Magazine. [ LINDA MARY VILLARI. See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. LUIGI VILLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Cons delphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town I and Country; Sic. I MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. (" Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J cphpnkpl Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellertpn Hebrew Scholar, 1 Oxford, 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896. Savonarola. Formerly Newspaper Corre- Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Phila- -| Savoy, House of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi M. Be. MALCOLM BELL. r Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. \ Sheffield Plate. M. Bt. MICHAEL BRETT. J Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ Salvage: Military. M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. (" Trinity College, Oxford, Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary I of State for the Home Department, London, and First Parliamentary Counsel to | Sa'e of Goods the Treasury. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange; &c. I M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," in the •{ Sarcodina. Cambridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. I M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. f Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- I Sculpture (in tart} • British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] ch~if >> , -, Painting to the Opening of the iQth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British 'naKesPeare. Portraits. Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c. M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -\ Shamash of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham -! Salamis; University, 1905-1908. [ Samos (in part). M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).-^ St Nectaire; Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. (_ St Pol, Counts of. M. T. H. M. TH. HOUTSMA. f Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Utrecht. \ Seljuks. 0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. f H.M Inspector ol Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of Education, J London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 SnaitesDury, 1st Earl of. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. l_ f St Petersburg (in part) ; P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. I Sakhalin (in part) ; See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. Samara: Government (in part); Samarkand: City (in part) ; [ Saratov: Government (in part). P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. | "eX- Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. [ P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LiTT. / See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ Scopas. P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. -I Sculpture (in tiarl) Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasquez, Life and Work ; &c. 1 P. St. PERCY SOMERS TYRINGHAM STEPHENS, J.P. f Contributor to the Badminton Magazine. \ Shooting. P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. J See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. "^Serfdom. P. Wa. SIR PHILLIP WATTS, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D. Director of Naval Construction for the British Navy. Chairman of the Federation J Smp: Hlstory smc'e tlte lmen- of Shipbuilders. Naval Architect and Director of War Shipbuilding Department ] ti°n of Steamships; of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., 1885-1901. [ Shipbuilding. R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. / See the biographical article : ADAMSON, ROBERT. \ SChellmg (in part). R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f Samaria' St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex-i c ploration Fund. \ Shechem. R. A. W. COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. f Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Com- 1 Sana. mission, Pamirs, 1895. [ R. C. C. RICHARD COPLEY CHRISTIE. /c.«u.,,. c * A See the biographical article: CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY. \ sc R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f s / • ,, t} Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ P R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. fSarpi, Paolo; See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Satire. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f scornion. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette (London). St John, Oliver; St Leger, Sir Anthony; Scroggs, Sir William; Serope Family; Ship-money; Shrewsbury, Duke of. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of I Seal (in part); Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer~\ Serow; Sheep (in part}. of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. ' I R. L. A. SIR REGINALD LAURENCE ANTROBUS, K.C.M.G. f Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Assistant Under-Secretary of State for-1, St Helena (in part). the Colonies, 1898-1909. I R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). c Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The c.),,.,*...! Uanni Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J. ° 8U> "8 D 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from Shanrov, Peter. 1460 to 1796 ; &c. R. P.* ROBERT PEELE. f shaft-sinkinir Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ W DKm6- R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton. Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., I gha«n (I'M -b- Hutcheson ; &c. T. G. C. THOMAS GILBERT CARVER, M.A., K.C. (1848-1906). f Formerly Judge of County Courts. Author of On the Law relating to the Carriage J. Salvage. of Goods by Sea. [ T. K. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. f Saint-Simon, Comte de Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. ~|_ (,'n part). T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.C.L., D.D. /Seraphim. See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ^ Serenus Of Antissa. bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll Th. H. T.T. T. W. F. T. W. R. D. W. A. B. C. W. A. D. W. A. P. W. Ba. W. C. D. W. W. E. A. A. W. E. Ho. W. Fr. W. F. K. W. Hu. W. H. Be. W. H. F. W. H. Ha. W. L. F. W. L. G. W. L.-W. THEODOR NSLDEKE. See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR. SIR TRAVERS Twiss, K.C., D.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Twiss, SIR TRAVERS. | Semitic Languages, I Sea Laws. THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. r Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics ofJ, Shuttle. Weaving. [ THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali SSnchi; Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the i Sariputta; Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-^1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Sasana Vamsa Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, PH.D., LL.D. Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy, Columbia University, New York. Author of Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction ; A History of Political ' Theories. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, . Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. St Gall: Canton; St Gall: Town; St Gotthard Pass; St Moritz; Sarnen; Saussure, Horace Benedict de; Savoie; Schaffhausen: Canton; Schaffhausen: Town; Scheuchzer, Johann; Schwyz; Sempach. Sherman, John. :St John of Jerusalem, Order of; Schleswig-Holstein Question. Shammai. WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Recent Development of Physical Science ; &c. Author of Theory of Solution ; J. Science. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary I coif..-.! Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic 1 name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. Director of the J Sea-Serpent (in part). WILLIAM EVANS HOYLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., M.R.C.S. Christ Church, Oxford. Director of the National Museum of Wales. Manchester Museum, 1889-1899. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J Sheep (in part). Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. WINIFRED F. KNOX. Author of The Court of a Saint. J Saladin. REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lrrr.D. President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the e-_i-w ci, i English Church, 597-1066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political'] Bley> slr J- History of England, 1760-1801. WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. Hackney Colleges, London. J Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Seth. t Seal (in part). r WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor c.i.iihai-1 of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 " of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. c Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History J Secession. of Reconstruction ; &c. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r Professor of History at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit] St John: Canada; Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy] St Pierre and Miquelon. Council (Colonial Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development. SIR WILLIAM LEE- WARNER, M.A., G.C.S.I. C Member of the Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Sayyid Ahmad Khan Sir Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie ; j Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman ; &c. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XIV W. M. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article : MINTO, WILLIAM. W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. W. P. A. LizuT.-CoLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R. W. T. Ca. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. W. W. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen. Scott, Sir Walter (in part). f Sebastiano del Piombo; I Shelley. St Lawrence: River. ( Salt: Ancient History and \ Religious Symbolism. Shrimp. Schopenhauer (in part). Saragossa, Councils of. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES St Vitus's Dance. Sal Ammoniac. Salicylic Acid. Salisbury. Salt Lake City. Saltpetre. Salt. Salvador. Salvation Army. Salzburg. Samoa. Samoyedes. Sanctuary. San Francisco. Santo Domingo. Sarsaparilla. Saskatchewan. Savannah. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Saxe-Meiningen. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach. Saxony. Scarlet Fever. Schleswig-Holstein. Scilly Isles. Scipio. Scrophulariaceae. Scurvy. Seal-Fisheries. Seattle. Sea-Urchin. Sedition. Seismometer. Selenium. Selkirkshire. Senna. Sennar. Sequoia. Serjeant. Servo-Bulgarian War. Settlement. Severn. Sewing Machines. Sextant. Seychelles. Shadow. Shakers. Shamash. Sheffield. Shell-heaps. Shell-money. Sheridan. Shetland. Shoe. Shorthand (modern). Shropshire. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, ETIENNE HENRI (1818-1881), | French chemist, was born on the nth of March 1818 in the island of St Thomas, West Indies, where his father was French consul. Together with his elder brother Charles he was educated in Paris at the College Rollin. In 1844, having graduated as doctor of medicine and doctor of science, he was appointed to organize the new faculty of science at Besancon, where he acted as dean and professor of chemistry from 1845 to 1851. Return- ing to Paris in the latter year he succeeded A. J. Balard at the Ecole Normale, and in 1859 became professor at the Sorbonne in place of J. B. A. Dumas, for whom he had begun tc lecture in 1853. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine on the ist of July 1881. He began his experimental work in 1841 with investigations of oil of turpentine and tolu balsam, in the course of which he discovered toluene. But his most important work was in inorganic and thermal chemistry. In 1849 he discovered anhydrous nitric acid (nitrogen pentoxide), a substance interesting as the first obtained of the so-called " anhydrides " of the monobasic acids. In 1855, ignorant of what Wohler had done ten years previously, he succeeded in obtaining metallic aluminium, and ultimately he devised a method by which the metal could be prepared on a large scale by the aid of sodium, the manufacture of which he also developed. With H. J. Debray (1827-1888) he worked at the platinum metals, his object being on the one hand to prepare them pure, and on the other to find a suitable metal for the standard metre for the Inter- national Metric Commission then sitting at Paris. With L. J. Troost (b. 1825) he devised a method for determining vapour densities at temperatures up to 1400° C., and, partly with F. Wohler, he investigated the allotropic forms of silicon and boron. The artificial preparation of minerals, especially of apatite and isomor- phous minerals and of crystalline oxides, was another subject in which he made many experiments. But his best known contribution to general chemistry is his work on the phenomena of reversible reactions, which he comprehended under a general theory of " dis- sociation." He first took up the subject about 1857, and it was in the course of his investigations on it that he devised the apparatus known as the " Deville hot and cold tube." His brother, CHARLES JOSEPH SAINTE- CLAIRE DEVILLE (1814-1876), geologist and meteorologist, was born in St Thomas on the 26th of February 1814. Having attended at the ficole des Mines in Paris, he assisted Elie de Beaumont in the chair of geology at the College de France from 1855 until he succeeded him in 1874. He made researches on volcanic phenomena, t especially on the gaseous emanations. He investigated also the variations of temperature in the atmosphere and ocean.' He died at Paris on the loth of October 1876. His published works include: fctudes geologiques sur les ties de Teneri/e et de Fogo (1848); Voyage geologique aux Antilles el aux ties de Tenerife et de Fogo (1848-1859); Recherches sur les princi- paux phenomenes de meteorologie et de physique generate aux Antilles (1849); Sur les variations periodiques de la temperature (1866), and Coup d'ceil historique sur la geologie (1878). xxrv. i ST ELMO'S FIRE, the glow accompanying the slow discharge of electricity to earth from the atmosphere. This discharge, which is identical with the " brush " discharge of laboratory experiments, usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities of pointed objects such as church towers, the masts of ships, or even the fingers of the outstretched hand: it is commonly accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. St Elmo's fire is most frequently observed at low levels through the winter season during and after snowstorms. The name St Elmo is an Italian corruption through Sant' Ermo of St Erasmus, a bishop, during the reign of Domitian, of Formiae, Italy, who was broken on the wheel about the 2nd of June 304. He has ever been the patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who regard St Elmo's fire as the visible sign of his guar- dianship. The phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks, and Pliny in his Natural History states that when there were two lights sailors called them Castor and Pollux and invoked them as gods. To English sailors St Elmo's fires were known as " corposants " (Ital. corpo santo). See Hazlitt's edition of Brand's Antiquities (1005) under " Castor and Pollux." . ST EMILION, a town of south-western France, in the depart- ment of Gironde, 25 m. from the right bank of the Dordogne and 27 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 1091; commune, 3546. The town derives its name from a hermit who lived here in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pictur- esquely situated on the slope of a hill, the town has remains of ramparts of the I2th and i3th centuries, with ditches hewn in the rock, and several medieval buildings. Of these the chief is the parish, once collegiate, church of the I2th and i3th centuries. A Gothic cloister adjoins the church. A fine belfry (i2th, i3th and isth centuries) commanding the town is built on the terrace, beneath which are hollowed in the rock the ora- tory and hermitage of St Emilion, and adjoining them an ancient monolithic church of considerable dimensions. Remains of a monastery of the Cordeliers (isth and i7th centuries), of a building (isth century)known as the Palais Cardinal, and a square keep (the chief relic of a stronghold founded by Louis VIII.) are also to be seen. Disused stone quarries in the side of the hill are used as dwellings by the inhabitants. St Emilion is celebrated for its wines. Its medieval importance, due to the pilgrimages to the tomb of the saint and to the commerce in its wines, began to decline towards the end of the I3th century owing to the foundation of Libourne. In 1272 it was the first of the towns of Guyenne to join the confederation headed by Bordeaux. SAINTE-PALAYE— ST ETIENNE SAINTE-PALAYE, JEAN BAPTISTE LA.CURNE (or LACXJRNE) DE (1697-1781), French scholar, was born at Auxerre on the 6th of June 1697. His father, Edme, had been gentleman of the bed-chamber to the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. Sainte-Palaye had a twin brother to whom he was greatly attached, refusing to marry so as not to be separated from him. For some time he ' held the same position under the regent Orleans as his father had under the duke of Orleans. He had received a thorough education in Latin and Greek, and had a taste for history. In 1724 he had been elected an associate of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, merely from his reputation, as nothing had been written by him before that date. From this time he devoted himself exclusively to the work of this society. After having published numerous memoirs on Roman history, he began a series of studies on the chroniclers of the middle ages for the Historiens des Gaules et de la France (edited by Dom Bouquet): Raoul Glaber, Helgaud, the Gesta of Louis VII., the chronicle of Morigny, Rigord and his con- tinuator, William le Breton, the monk of St Denis, Jean de Venette, Froissart and the Jouvencel. He made two journeys into Italy with his brother, the first in 1739-1740, accompanied by his compatriot, the president Charles de Brosses, who related many humorous anecdotes about the two brothers, particularly about Jean Baptiste, whom he called " the bilious Sainte- Palaye!" On returning from this tour he saw one of Join- ville's manuscripts at the house of the senator Fiorentini, well known in the history of the text of this pleasing memorialist. The manuscript was bought for the king in 1741 and is still at the Bibliotheque nationale. After the second journey (1749) Lacurne published a letter to de Brosses, on Le Go&t dans les arts (1751). In this he showed that he was not only attracted by manuscripts, but that he could see and admire works of art. In 1 759 he published the first edition of his Memoires sur I'ancienne chevalerie, consideree comme un etablissement politique et mililaire, for which unfortunately he only used works of fiction and ancient stories as sources, neglecting the heroic poems which would have shown him the nobler aspects of this institution so soon corrupted by " courteous " manners; a second edition appeared at the time of his death (3 vols. 1781, 3rd ed. 1826). He prepared an edition of the works of Eustache Deschamps, which was never published, and also made a collection of more than a hundred volumes of extracts from ancient authors relating to French antiquities and the French language of the middle ages. His Glossaire de la languefranc.aise was ready in 1 7 56, and a prospectus had been published, but the great length of the work prevented him finding a publisher. It remained in manuscript for more than a century. In 1 764 a collection of his manuscripts was bought by the government and after his death were placed in the king's library; they are still there (fonds Moreau), with the exception of some which were given to the marquess of Paulmy in exchange, and were later placed in the Arsenal. Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye ceased work about 1771; the death of his brother was greatly felt by him, he became childish, and died on the ist of March 1781. Sainte-Palaye had been a member of the Academic Francaise since 1758. His life was written for this Acadimie by Chamfort and for the Academic des Inscriptions by Dupuy; both works are of no value. See, however, the biography of Lacurne, with a list of his published works and those in manuscript, at the beginning ^of the tenth and last volume of the Dictionnaire histonque de I'ancien langage franc.ois, ou tlossaire de la langue franfoise depuis son origine jusquau siecle de Louis XIV., published by Louis Favre (1875- 1882). SAINTES, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Charente-Infeiieure, 47 m. S.E. of La Rochelle by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), town, 13,744; commune, 19,025. Saintes is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Charente, which separates it from its suburb of Les Dames. It is of interest for its Roman remains, of which the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus, dating from the reign of Tiberius. This formerly stood on a Roman bridge destroyed in 1843, when it was removed and reconstructed on the right bank of the river. Ruins of baths and of an amphitheatre are also to be seen. The amphitheatre, larger than that of Nlmes, and in area surpassed only by the Coliseum, dates probably from the close of the ist or the beginning of the 2nd century and was capable of holding 20,000 spectators. A Roman building known as the Capitol was destroyed after the capture of the town from the English by Charles of Alenfon, brother of Philip of Valois, in 1330, and its site is occupied by a hospital. Saintes was a bishop's see till 1790; the cathedral of St Peter, built in the first half of the i2th century, was rebuilt in the isth century, and again after it had been almost destroyed by the Huguenots in 1 568. The interior has now an unattractive appearance. The tower (isth century) is 236 ft. high. The church of St Eutropius (founded at the close of the 6th century, rebuilt in the nth, and had its nave destroyed in the Wars of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-lighted crypt — the largest in France after that of Chartres — adorned with richly sculptured capitals and containing the tomb of St Eutropius (4th or 5th century). The fine stone spire dates from the 1 5th century. Notre-Dame, a splendid example of the architecture of the nth and i2th centuries, with a noble clock- tower, is no longer devoted to religious purposes. The old h&tel de ville (i6th and i8th centuries) contains a library, and the present h6tel de ville a museum. Bernard Palissy, the porcelain- maker, has a statue in the town, where he lived from 1542 to 1562. Small vessels ascend the river as far as Saintes, which carries on trade in grain, brandy and wine, has iron foundries, works of the state railway, and manufactures earthenware, tiles, &c. Saintes (Mediolanum or Mediolanium) , the capital of the Santones, was a flourishing; town before Caesar's conquest of Gaul ; in the middle ages it was capital of the Saintonge. Christianity was introduced by St Eutropius, its first bishop, in the middle of the 3rd century. Charlemagne rebuilt its cathedral. The Normans burned the town in 845 and 854. Richard Coeur de Lion fortified himself within its walls against his father Henry II., who captured it after a destructive siege. In 124^2 St Louis defeated the English under its walls and was received into the town. It was not, however, till the reign of Charles V. that Saintes was permanentjy recovered from the English. The Protestants did great damage during the Wars of Religion. ST 6TIENNE, an industrial town of east-central France, capital of the department of Loire, 310 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 36 m. S.S.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 130,940; commune, 146,788. St Etienne is situated on the Furens, which flows through it from S.E. to N.W., partly underground, and is an important adjunct to the silk manufacture. The town is uni- formly built, its principal feature being the straight thoroughfare nearly 4 m. long which traverses it from N. to S. The chief of the squares is the Place Marengo, which has a statue of F. Gamier, the explorer, and is overlooked by the town hall and the prefecture, both modern. The church of St Etienne dates from the isth century, and the Romanesque church of the abbey of Valbenoite is on the S.E. outskirts of the town. A valuable collec- tion of arms and armour, a picture gallery, industrial collections, and a library with numerous manuscripts are in the Palais des Arts. St Etienne is the seat of a prefect, and has an important school of mining, and schools of music, chemistry and dyeing, &c. The town owes its importance chiefly to the coal-basin which extends between Firminy and Rive-de-Gier over an area 20 m. long by S m. wide, and is second only to those of Nord and Pas-de-Calais in France. There are concessions giving employment to some 18,000 workmen and producing annually between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 tons. The mineral is of two kinds — smelting coal, said to be the best in France, and gas coal. There are manufactures of ribbons, trimmings and other goods made from silk and mixtures of cotton and silk. This industry dates from the early I7th century, is carried on chiefly in small factories (electricity supplying the motive power), and employs at its maximum some 50,000 hands. The attendant industry of dyeing is carried on on a large scale. The manufacture of steel arid iron and of heavy iron goods such as armour-plating occupies about 3000 workmen, and about half that number are employed in the production of ironmongery generally. Weaving machinery, cycles, automobiles and agricultural imple- ments are also made. The manufacture of fire-arms, carried on at the national factory under the direction of artillery officers, employs at busy times more than 10,000 men, and can turn out 480,000 rifles in the year. Private firms, employing 4500 hands, make both military rifles and sporting-guns, revolvers, &c. To these industries must be added the manufacture of elastic fabrics, glass, cartridges, liqueurs, hemp-cables, &c. ST EUSTATIUS— ST GALL At the close of the I2th century St Etienne was a parish of the Pays de Gier belonging to the abbey of Valbenoite. By the middle of the i4th century the coal trade had reached a certain development, and at the beginning of the isth century Charles VII. permitted the town to erect fortifications. The manufacture of fire-arms for the state was begun at St Etienne under Francis I. and was put under the surveillance of state inspectors early in the i8th century. In 1789 the town was producing at the rate of 12,000 muskets per annum; between September 1794 and May 1796 they delivered over 170,000; and 100,000 was the annual average throughout the period of the empire. The first railways opened in France were the line between St Etienne and Andrezieux on the Loire in 1828 and that between St Etienne and Lyons in 1831. In 1856 St Etienne became the administrative centre of the department instead of Montbrison. ST EUSTATIUS and SABA, two islands in the Dutch West Indies. St Eustatius lies 12 m. N.W. of St Kitts in 17° 50' N. and 62° 40' W. It is 8 sq. m. in area and is composed of several volcanic hills and intervening valleys. It contains Orangetown, situated on an open roadstead on the W., with a small export trade in yams and sweet potatoes. Pop. (1908) 1283. A few miles to the N.W. is the island of SABA, 5 sq. m. in extent. It consists of a single volcanic cone rising abruptly from the sea to the height of nearly 2800 ft. The town, Bottom, standing on the floor of an old crater, can only be approached from the shore 800 ft. below, by a series of steps cut in the solid rock and known as the " Ladder." The best boats in the Caribbees are built here; the wood is imported and the vessels, when complete, are lowered over the face of the cliffs. Pop. (1908) 2294. The islands form part of the colony of Curacao (d P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacro militar ordine, Sfc. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful sources as containing references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883 J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives del' Ordrede Saint-Jean, an analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem (l 100-1310), 4 vols. folio. This gives (i) all documents anterior to 1120, (2) all those emanating from the great dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, em- perors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which fix the date of the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the relations of the Hospitallers with the lay and ecclesiastical authorities and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full ; those already published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les 1 See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D. 4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken. ST JOHNS— SAINT JOSEPH Hospitallers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved. It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works may be mentioned John Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta (1852); J. M. Kemble's Historical introduction to The Knights Hospitallers in England (Camden Soc., London, 1857); W. Porter, Hist, of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883); Bedford and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.) ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east coast of the island, in the peninsula of Avalon, in 47° 33' 54" N., and 52° 40' 1 8" W. It is the most easterly city of America, only 170x3 m. from Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from Liverpool. It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast. The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by Signal Hill (520 ft.) and South Side Hill (620 ft.), is about 1400 ft. wide, narrowing to 600 ft. between Pancake and Chain Rocks. At the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There is good wharf accommodation and a well-equipped dry dock. St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see NEWFOUNDLAND), being the centre of the cod, seal and whale fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New York, Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the island is sea-borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern terminus of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-Basques, whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney. The finest buildings in the city are the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Education is controlled by the various religious bodies; many of the young men complete their studies in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by com- missioners appointed by the governor in council. St Johns was first settled by Devonshire fishermen early in the i6th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession. Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812 it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes. The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by fire (1816-1817 and 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892, but new and more substantial buildings have been erected. The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district of St Johns contained 39,094 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were within the limits of the city. ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Johns county, 27 m. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on the river Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop. (1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, grain and farm produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce flour, silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont, enter St Johns. On the opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with St Johns by several bridges. SAINT JOHNSBURY, a township and the county-seat of Caledonia county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Passumpsic river, about 34 m. E.N.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 6567; (1900) 7010; (1910) 8098; of the village of the same name (1900) 5666 (1309 foreign-born); (1910) 6693. Area of the township, about 47 sq. m. Saint Johnsbury is served by the Boston & Maine and the Saint Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railways. The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. In the village are a Y.M.C.A. building (1885); the Saint Johnsbury Academy (1842); the Saint Johnsbury Athenaeum (1871), with a library (about 18,000 volumes in 1909) and an art gallery; the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891), founded by Colonel Franklin Fairbanks; St Johnsbury Hospital (1895); Brightlook Hospital (1899, private); the large scales manu- factory of the E. & T. Fairbanks Company (see FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS), and also manufactories of agricultural implements, steam hammers, granite work, furniture and carriages. There are two systems of water-works, one being owned by the village. The township of Saint Johnsbury was granted to Dr Jonathan Arnold (1741—1793) and associates in 1786; in the same year a settlement was established and the place was named in honour of Jean Hector Saint John de Cr^vecoeur (1731-1813), who wrote Letters of an American Farmer (1782), a glowing description of America, which brought thither many immigrants, and who intro- duced potato planting into France. The township government was organized in 1790, and the village was incorporated in 1853. ST JOHN'S WORT, in botany, the general name for species of Hypericum, especially H . perforatum, small shrubby plants with slender sterns, sessile opposite leaves which are often dotted with pellucid glands, and showy yellow flowers. H. Androsaenium is Tutsan (Fr. tout saine), so called from its healing properties. H. calycinum (Rose of Sharon), a creeping plant with large almost solitary flowers 3 to 4 in. across, is a south-east European plant which has become naturalized in Britain in various places in hedges and thickets. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Berrien county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Saint Joseph river, near the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 3733J (1900) 5155, of whom 1183 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5936. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Pere Marquette railways, by electric interurban railway to South Bend, Indiana, and by a steamboat line to Chicago. Benton Harbor, about i m. S.W., with which St Joseph is connected by electric line, is a terminus of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway. The U.S. government has deepened the harbour channel to 18 ft.; and the St Joseph river has been made navigable for vessels drawing 3 ft. from St Joseph to Berrien Springs (25 m. by river). A canal, i m. long, extends from the upper part of the harbour to Benton Harbor. St Joseph has a public library. The city is a summer and health resort; it has mineral (saline sulphur) springs and a large mineral-water bath house. The general offices and the hospital (1902) of the Michigan Children's Home Society are here. The city has an important trade in fruit, and has various manu- factures, including paper, fruit packages, baskets, motor boats, gasolene launches, automobile supplies, hosiery and knit goods, air guns and sashes and blinds. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. On or near the site of the present city La Salle built in 1679 Fort Miami. In the same county, on or near the site of the present city of Niles (pop. 1910, 5156), French Jesuits established an Indian mission in 1690, and the French government in 1697 erected Fort St Joseph, which was captured from the English by the Indians in 1763, and in 1781 was seized by a Spanish party from St Louis. Fort Miami has often been confused with this Fort St Joseph, 60 m. farther up the river. St Joseph was settled in 1829, incorporated as a village in 1836 and first chartered as a city in 1891. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Buchanan county, Missouri, U.S.A., and a port of entry, situated in the north-western corner of the state on the E. bank of the Missouri river. It is the third in size among the cities of the state. Pop. (1880) 32,431; (1890) 52,324; (1900) 102,979, of whom 8424 were foreign-born and 6260 were negroes; (1910 census) 77,403. St Joseph is a transportation centre of great import- ance. It is served by six railways, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, and the St Joseph & Grand Island; in addition there are two terminal railways. A steel bridge across the Missouri (built in 1872; rebuilt in 1906) connects the city with Elwood, Kansas (pop. 1910, 636), and is used by two railways. The city is laid out on hills above the bluffs of the river. The site was completely remade, however (especially in 1866-1873), and the entire business portion has been much graded down. The principal public buildings are the Federal building, the court house, an auditorium seating 7000, a Union Station and a 20 ST JUNIEN— SAINT-JUST public library. There are six city parks, of which the largest are Krug Park (30 acres) and Bartlett Park (20 acres). The State Hospital (No. 2) for the Insane(opened 1874) is immediately E. of St Joseph; in the city are the Ensworth, St Joseph and Woodson hospitals, a Memorial Home for needy old people and the Home for Little Wanderers. South St Joseph, a manu- facturing suburb, has a library and so has the northern part of the city. The great stock-yards of South St Joseph are sights of great interest. In 1909 the state legislature provided for a commission form of government which took effect in April 1910; a council of five, elected by the city at large, has only legislative powers; the mayor appoints members of a utilities commission, a park commission and a board of public works, and all officers except the city auditor and treasurer; and the charter provides for the initiative, the referendum and the recall. The city maintains a workhouse (1882), also two market houses, and owns and manages an electric-lighting plant. Natural gas is also furnished to the city from oil-fields in Kansas. A private company owns the water-works, first built in 1879 and since greatly improved. The water is drawn from the Missouri, 3 m. above the city, and is pumped thence into reservoirs and settling basins. Beside the local trade of a rich surrounding farming country, the railway facilities of St Joseph have enabled it to build up a great jobbing trade (especially in dry goods), and this is still the greatest economic interest of the city. Commerce and transport were the only distinctive basis of the city's growth and wealth until after 1890, when there was a great increase in manufacturing, especially, in South St Joseph, of the slaughtering and meat-packing industry in the last three years of the decade. In 1900 the manufactured product of the city and its immediate suburbs was valued at $31,690,736, of which $19,009,332 were credited to slaughtering and packing. In the decade of 1890-1900 the increase in the value of manu- factures (165-9%) was almost five times as great in St Joseph as in any other of the largest four cities of the state, and this was due almost entirely to the growth of the slaughtering and meat-packing business, which is for the most part located outside the municipal limits. In 1905 the census reports did not include manufactures outside the actual city limits; the total value of the factory product of the city proper in 1905 was $11,573,720; besides slaughtering and packing the other manufactures in 1905 included men's factory-made clothing (valued at $1,556,655) flour and grist-mill products (valued at $683 ,464) ,saddlery and har- ness (valued at $524,918), confectionery ($437,096), malt liquors ($407,054), boots and shoes ($350,384) and farm implements. In 1826 Joseph Robidoux, a French half-breed trader, established a trading post on the site of St Joseph. Following the purchase from the Indians of the country, now known as the Platte Purchase, in 1836, a settlement grew up about this trading post, and in 1843 Robidoux laid out a town here and named it St Joseph in honour of his patron saint. St Joseph became the county-seat in 1846, and in 1851 was first chartered as a city. It early became a trading centre of importance, well known as an outfitting point for miners and other emigrants to the Rocky Mountain region and the Pacific coast. During the Civil War it was held continuously by the Unionists, but local sentiment was bitterly divided. After the war a rapid development began. In 1885 St Joseph became a city of the second class. Under the state constitution of 1875 it has had the right, since attaining a population of 100,000, to form a charter for itself. In September 1909, at a special election, it adopted the commission charter described above. ST JUNIEN, a town of west-central France in the department of Haute- Vienne, on the right bank of the Vienne, 26 m. W. by N. of Limoges on the railway from Limoges to Angouleme. Pop. (1006) town, 8484; commune, 11,400. The I2th century collegiate church, a fine example of the Romanesque style of Limousin, contains a richly sculptured tomb of St Junien, the hermit of the 6th century from whom the town takes its name. Another interesting building is the Gothic chapel of Notre-Dame, with three naves, rebuilt by Louis XI., standing close to a medieval bridge over the Vienne. The town, which ranks second in the department in population and industry, is noted for leather-dressing and the manufacture of gloves and straw paper. SAINT-JUST, ANTOINE LOUIS LEON DE RICHEBOURG DE (1767-1794), French revolutionary leader, was born at Decize in the Nivernais on the 25th of August 1767. At the outbreak of the Revolution, intoxicated with republican ideas, he threw himself with enthusiasm into politics, was elected an officer in the National Guard of the Aisne, and by fraud — he being yet under age — admitted as a member of the electoral assembly of his district. Early in 1789 he had published twenty cantos of licentious verse, in the fashion of the time, under the title of Organt au Vatican. Henceforward, however, he assumed a stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyrannical and pitilessly thorough, became the characteristic of his life. He entered into correspondence with Robespierre, who, flattered by his worship, admitted him to his friendship. Thus supported, Saint- Just became deputy of the department of Aisne to the National Convention, where he made his first speech on the condemnation of Louis XVI. — gloomy, fanatical, remorseless in tone — on the I3th of November 1792. In the Convention, in the Jacobin Club, and among the populace his relations with Robespierre became known, and he was dubbed the " St John of the Messiah of the People." His appointment as a member of the Committee of Public Safety placed him at the centre of the political fever-heat. In the name of this committee he was charged with the drawing up of reports to the Convention upon the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party of the Gironde (report of the 8th of July 1793), of the Herbertists, and finally, of that denunciation of Danton which consigned him and his followers to the guillotine. What were then called reports were rather appeals to the passions; in Saint-Just's hands they furnished the occasion for a display of fanatical daring, of gloomy eloquence, and of undoubted genius; and — with the shadow of Robespierre behind him — they served their turn. Camille Desmoulins, in jest and mockery, said of Saint-Just — the youth with the beautiful 'countenance and the long fair locks — " He carries his head like a Holy Sacrament." " And I," savagely replied Saint- Just, " will make him carry his like a Saint Denis." The threat was not vain: Desmoulins accom- panied Danton to the scaffold. The same ferocious inflexibility animated Saint-Just with reference to the external policy of France. He proposed that the National Convention should itself, through its committees, direct all military movements and all branches of the government (report of the loth of October 1793). This was agreed to, and Saint-Just was despatched to Strassburg, in company with another deputy, to superintend the military operations. It was suspected that the enemy without was being aided by treason within. Saint-Just's remedy was direct and terrible: he followed his experience in Paris, " organized the Terror," and soon the heads of all suspects sent to Paris were falling under the guillotine. But there were no executions at Strassburg, and Saint-Just repressed the excesses of J. G. Schneider (q.v.), who as public prosecutor to the revolu- tionary tribunal of the Lower Rhine had ruthlessly applied the Terror in Alsace. Schneider was sent to Paris and guillotined. The conspiracy was defeated, and the armies of the Rhine and Moselle having been inspirited by success — Saint-Just himself taking a fearless part in the actual fighting — and having effected a junction, the frontier was delivered and Germany invaded. On his return Saint-Just was made president of the Convention. Later, with the army of the North, he placed before the generals the dilemma of victory over the enemies of France or trial by the dreaded revolutionary tribunal; and before the eyes of the army itself he organized a force specially charged with the slaughter of those who should seek refuge by flight. Success again crowned his efforts, and Belgium was gained for France (May, 1794). Meanwhile affairs in Paris looked gloomier than ever, and Robespierre recalled Saint-Just to the capital. Saint- Just proposed a dictatorship as the only remedy for the con- vulsions of society. At last, at the famous sitting of the gth Thermidor, he ventured to present as the report of the com- mittees of General Security and Public Safety a document expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had been refused to the other members of committee on the previous evening. Then the storm broke. He was vehemently inter- rupted, and the sitting ended with an order for Robespierre's ST JUST— ST LAWRENCE 21 arrest (see ROBESPIERRE). On the following day, the 28th of July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly all young, were guillotined. Saint-Just maintained his proud self-possession to the last. See CEuvres de Saint- Just, precedees d'une notice historique sur so, vie (Paris, 1833-1834); E. Fleury, Etudes revolutionnaires (2 vols., 1851), with which cf. articles by Sainte Beuve (Causeries du lundi, vol. v.), Cuvillier-Fleury {Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires) ; E. Hamel, Histoire de Saint- Just (1859), which brought a fine to the publishers for outrage on public decency ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). The CEuvres completes de Saint-Just have been edited with notes by C. Vellay (Paris, 1908). ST JUST (St Just in Penwith), a market town in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 75 m. by road W. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5646. This is the most westerly town in England, lying in a wild district i m. inland from Cape Cornwall, which is 4 m. N. of Land's End. The urban district has an area of 7633 acres, and includes the small industrial colonies near some of the most important mines in Cornwall. The Levant mine is the chief, the workings extend- ing beneath the sea. Traces of ancient workings and several exhausted mines are seen. The church of St Just is Per- pendicular, with portions of the fabric of earlier date. There are ruins of an oratory dedicated to St Helen on Cape Cornwall. ST KILDA, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 35 m. by rail S. of, and suburban to, Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 20,544. It is a fashionable watering-place on Hobson's Bay, and possesses the longest pier in Australia. The esplanade and the public park are finely laid out; and portions of the sea are fenced in to protect bathers. The town hall, the public library, the assembly hall, and the great Anglican church of All Saints are the chief buildings. ST KILDA (Gaelic Hirta, " the western land "), the largest of a small group of about sixteen islets of the Outer Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is included in the civil parish of Harris, and is situated 40 m. W. of North Uist. It measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 2 m. from N. to S., has an area of about 3500 acres, and is 7 m. in circumference. Except at the landing- place on the south-east, the cliffs rise sheer out of dee-p water, and on the north-east side the highest eminence in the island, Conagher, forms a precipice 1220 ft. high. St Kilda is probably the core of a Tertiary volcano, but, besides volcanic rocks, contains hills of sandstone in which the stratification is distinct. The boldness of its scenery is softened by the richness of its verdure. The inhabitants, an industrious Gaelic-speaking community (no in 1851 and 77 in 1901), cultivate about 40 acres of land (potatoes, oats, barley), keep about 1000 sheep and a few head of cattle. They catch puffins, fulmar petrels, guillemots, razor- birds, Manx shearwaters and solan geese both for their oil and for food. Fishing is generally neglected. Coarse tweeds and blanketing are manufactured for home use from the sheep's wool which is plucked from the animal, not shorn. The houses are collected in a little village at the head of the East Bay. The island is practically inaccessible for eight months of the year, but the inhabitants communicate with the outer world by means of " sea messages," which are despatched in boxes when a strong west wind is blowing, and generally make the western islands or mainland of Scotland in a week. The island has been in the possession of the Macleods for hundreds of years. In 1779 the chief of that day sold it, but in 1871 Macleod ol Macleod bought it back, it is stated, for £3000. In 1724 the popu- lation was reduced by smallpox to thirty souls. They appear to catch what is called the " boat-cold " caused by the arrival of strange boats, and at one time the children suffered severely from a form of lockjaw known as the " eight days' sickness." See works by Donald Munro, high dean of the Isles (1585) M Martin (1698), Rev. K. Macaulay (1764), R. Connell (1887); Miss Goodnch-Freer, The Outer Isles; Richard and Cherry Kearton, With Nature and a Camera (1896). ST KITTS, or ST CHRISTOPHER, an island in the British West Indies, forming, with Nevis and Anguilla, one of the presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. It is a long oval with a narrow neck of land projecting from the south-eastern end; total length 23 m., area 63 sq. m. Mountains traverse the central part from N.W. to S.E., the greatest height being Mount Misery (3771 ft.). The island is well watered, fertile and healthy, and its climate is cool and dry (temperature between 78° and 85° F.; average annual rainfall 38 in.). The circle of land formed by the skirts of the mountains, and the valley of Basseterre con- stitute nearly the whole of the cultivated portion. The higher slopes of the hills afford excellent pasturage, while the summits are crowned with dense woods. Sugar, molasses, rum, salt, coffee and tobacco are the chief products; horses and cattle are bred. Primary education is compulsory. The principal towns are Old Road, Sandy Point and the capital Basseterre, which lies on the S.W. coast (pop. about 10,000). One good main road, macadamized throughout, encircles the island. The local legislature consists of 6 official and 6 unofficial members nomin- ated by the Crown. St Kitts was discovered by Columbus in 1493 and first settled by Sir Thomas Warner in 1623. Five years later it was divided between the British and* the French, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 it was entirely ceded to the British Crown. Population, mostly negroes, 29,782. SAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1716-1803), French poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was estab- lished in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his court at Luneville. He left the army after the Hanoverian campaign of 1756-57, and devoted himself to literature, producing a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never read, many articles for the Encyclopedic, and some miscellaneous works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame, however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus's mistress, whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Thimire, when Voltaire in 1748 came to Luneville with the marquise de Chatelet. Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, continued for the whole lives of himself and his mistress. Saint-Lambert's later years were given to philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des nuzurs chez toutes let nations ou catechisme universel, and published his CEuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the 9th of February 1803. Madame d'Houdetot survived until the 28th of January 1813. See G. Maugras, La Cour de Luneville (1904) and La Marquise de Boufflers (1907); also the literature dealing with Rousseau and Voltaire. ST LAWRENCE. The river St Lawrence, in North America, with the five fresh- water inland seas (see GREAT LAKES), Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, forms one of the great river systems of the world, having a length, from the source of the river St Louis (which rises near the source of the river Mississippi and falls into the head of Lake Superior) to Cape Gaspe, where it empties into the Gulf of St Lawrence, of 2100 m. The river is here considered as rising at the foot of Lake Ontario, in 44° 10' N., 76° 30' W., where the name St Lawrence is first applied to it. The river, to the point where it crosses 45° N. in its north- westerly course, forms the boundary line between the state of New York and the province of Ontario; thence to the sea it is wholly within Canadian territory, running through the province of Quebec. At Point des Monts, 260 m. below Quebec, it is 26 m. wide, and where it finally merges into the Gulf of St Lawrence, 150 m. farther on, it is 90 m. wide, this stretch being broken by the large island of Anticosti, lying fairly in the mouth. The character of the river banks varies with the geological formations through which it runs. Passing over the Archaean rocks of the Laurentian from Kingston to Brockville the shores are very irregular, and the river is broken up by protrusions of glaciated summits of the granites and gneisses into a large number of picturesque islands, " The Thousand Islands," greatly frequented as a summer resort. From Brockville to Montreal the river runs through flat-bedded Cambro-silurian imestones, with rapids at several points, which are all run by light-draught passenger boats. For the up trip the rapids are avoided by canalization. From Montreal to Three Rivers the course is through an alluvial plain over-lying the limestones, 22 ST LAWRENCE the river at one point expanding into Lake St Peter, 20 m. long by 10 m. wide, with a practically uniform depth of 10 ft. Below Three Rivers the banks grow gradually higher until, after passing Quebec through a cleft in slate rocks of Cambrian age, the river widens, washing the feet of the Laurentian Mountains on its north shore; while a more moderately hilly country, terminating in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, skirts its south shore. From Kingston, at the head of the river, to Montreal, a distance of 170 m., navigation is limited to vessels of 14 ft. draught by the capacity of the canals. From Montreal to Quebec, 160 m., a ship channel has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft.; below Quebec the river is tidally navigable by vessels of any draught. The canals on the St Lawrence above Montreal have been enlarged to the capacity of the Welland canal, the improved system having been opened to commerce in the autumn of 1899. Instead of enlarging the Beauharnois canal, on the south side of the river, a new canal, the " Soulanges," was built from Coteau Landing to Cascades Point, on the north side, the Beau- harnois canal still being used for small barges. The locks of the enlarged canals are all 45 ft. wide, with an available depth of 14 ft. and a minimum length of 270 ft. The following table shows the canalized stretches in this portion of the river: — Name. From To Length in Miles. Number of Locks. Fall in Feet. Galops Head of Galops Rapids Iroquois 7i 3 I5l River . 4 Rapide Plat Head of Ogden Island Morrisburg 3f 2 III River . . . ioi Farran Point Head of Croil Island Farran Point i I 3l River . 5 Cornwall Canal . Dickinson Landing Cornwall ii 6 48 Lake St Francis 3oi Soulanges . Coteau Landing Cascades Point 14 4 toi Lake St Louis . H Lachine Lachine Montreal 8J 5 45 109! 21 206 In the stretch between Montreal and Quebec the ship channel, begun by the Montreal Harbour Commissioners, has been assumed by the Dominion government as a national work, and improve- ments, involving extensive dredging, have been undertaken with the aim of securing everywhere a minimum depth of 30 ft. with a minimum width of 450 ft. The whole river from Kingston to the sea is well supplied with aids to navi- gation. In the dredged portions lights are arranged in pairs of leading lights on foundations sufficiently high and solid to resist the pressure of ice movement, and there is an elabo- rate system of fog alarms, gas-lighted and other buoys, as well as telegraphic, wireless and telephonic communication, storm signal, weather and ice reporting stations and a life-saving service. Montreal, at the head of ocean navigation, the largest city in Canada, is an important distributing centre for all points in western Canada, and enjoys an extensive shipping trade with the United Kingdom, the sea-going shipping exceeding 1,500,000 tons, and the inland shipping approximating 2,000,000 tons, annually. Quebec is the summer port used by the largest steamers in the Canadian trade. There are numerous flourishing towns on both banks of the river, from1 Kingston, a grain trans- ferring port, to the sea. Large quantities of lumber, principally spruce (fir) and paper pulp, are manufactured at small mills along the river, and shipped over sea directly from the place of production. The mail steamers land and embark mails at Rimouski, to or from which they are conveyed by rail along the south shore. The importance to Canada of the river St Lawrence as a national trade route cannot be over-estimated. As a natural highway between all points west of the Maritime Provinces and Europe it is unique in permitting ocean traffic to penetrate 1000 m. into the heart of a country. It is, moreover, the shortest freight route from the Great Lakes to Europe. From Buffalo to Liverpool via New York involves rail or 7-ft. canal transport of 496 m. and an ocean voyage of 3034 nautical miles. Via Montreal there is a i4-ft. transport of 348 m. and river and ocean voyage of 2772 nautical miles. From Quebec to Liverpool by Cape Race is 2801 nautical miles, while the route by Belle Isle, more nearly a great circle course, usually taken between July and October, is only 2633 nautical miles. On the other hand the St Lawrence is not open throughout the year; the average time between the arrival of the first vessel at Montreal from sea and the departure of the last ocean vessel is seven months. From Kingston to Quebec the river freezes over every winter, except at points where the current is rapid. Below Quebec, although there is heavy border ice, the river never freezes over. For a few winters, while the bridge accommodation at Montreal was restricted to the old single-track Victoria bridge, railway freight trains were run across the ice bridge on temporary winter tracks. Efforts have been made to lengthen the season of navigation by using specially constructed steamers to break the ice; and it is claimed that the season of navigation could be materially lengthened, and winter floods prevented by keeping the river open to Montreal. Winter ferries are maintained at Quebec, between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, and between Newfoundland and Sydney, Cape Breton. In the winter of 1898-1899 an attempt was made to run a winter steamer from Paspebiac to England, but it was not successful, principally because an unsuitable vessel was used. To pass through the field of ice that is always present in the gulf, in greater or lesser quantity, specially strengthened vessels are required. The river above tide water is not subject to excessive flooding, the maxi- mum rise in the spring and early summer months, chiefly from northern tributaries from the Ottawa eastward, being 10 ft. The Great Lakes serve as impounding reservoirs for the gradual distribution of all overflows in the west. At Montreal, soon after the river freezes over each winter, there is a local rise of about IO ft. in the level of the water in the harbour, caused by restriction of the channel by anchor ice; and in the spring of the year, when the volume of the water is augmented, this obstruction leads to a further rise, in 1886 reaching a height of 27 ft. above ordinary low water. To Erevent flooding of the lower parts of the city a dike was in 1887 uilt along the river front, which prevented a serious flooding in 1899. Tides enter the Gulf of St Lawrence from the Atlantic chiefly through Cabot Strait (between Cape Breton and Newfoundland), which is 75 m. wide and 250 fathoms deep. The tide entering through Belle Isle Strait, 10 m. wide and 30 fathoms deep, is comparatively little felt. The tidal undulation, in passing through the gulf, expands so widely as to be almost inappreciable in places, as, for example, at the Magdalen Islands, in the middle of the gulf, where the range amounts to about 3 ft. at springs, becoming effaced at neaps. There is also little more tide than this at some points on the north shore of Prince Edward Island. The greatest range is attained in North- umberland Strait and in Chaleur Bay, where it amounts to 10 ft. At the entrance to the estuary at Anticosti it has again the oceanic range of about 6 ft., and proceeds up the estuary with an ever- increasing range, which attains its maximum of 19 ft. at the lower end of Orleans Island, 650 m. from the ocean at Cabot Strait. This must be considered the true head of the estuary. At Quebec, 30 m. farther up, the range is nearly as great ; but at 40 m. above Quebec it is largely cut off by the Richelieu Rapids, and finally ceases to be felt at Three Rivers, at the lower end of Lake St Peter, 760 m. from the ocean. The St Lawrence provides ample water-power, which is being increasingly used. Its rapids have long been used for milling and factory purposes; a wing dam on the north side of Lachine Rapids furnishes electricity to Montreal; the falls of Montmorency light Quebec and run electric street cars; and from Lake Superior to the gulf there are numerous points on the tributaries to the St Lawrence where power could be used. Nearly all the rivers flowing into the St Lawrence below Quebec are stocked with salmon (Salmo salar), and are preserved and leased to anglers by the provincial government. In the salt ST LEGER— ST LEONARDS water of the gulf and lower river, mackerel, cod, herring, smelt, sea-trout, striped bass and other fish are caught for market. The St Lawrence is spanned by the following railway bridges: (i) A truss bridge built near Cornwall in 1900 by the New York & Ottawa railroad, now operated by the New York Central railroad. (2) A truss bridge with a swing, built in 1890 by the Canada Atlantic railway at Coteau Landing. (3) A cantilever bridge built in 1887 by the Canadian Pacific railway at Caugh- nawaga. (4) The Victoria Jubilee bridge, built as a tubular bridge by the Grand Trunk railway in 1860, and transformed into a truss bridge in 1897-1898. The new bridge rests on the piers of the old one, enlarged to receive it, is 6592 ft. long by 67 ft. wide, has 25 spans, double railway and trolley tracks, driveways and sidewalks, and was erected without interruption of traffic. (5) A very large cantilever bridge, having a central span of 1800 ft., crosses the river at a point 7 m. above Quebec. The southern half of the superstructure, while in course of erection in August 1907, fell, killing 78 men, and necessitating a serious delay in the completion of the work. The river St Lawrence was discovered by Jacques Cartier, commissioned by the king of France to explore and trade on the American coast. Cartier entered the strait of Belle Isle in 1534; but Breton fishermen had previously resorted there in summer and penetrated as far as Brest, eleven leagues west of Blanc Sablon, the dividing line between Quebec and Labrador. Cartier circled the whole gulf, but missed the entrance to the river. On his second voyage in 1536 he named a bay on the north shore of the gulf, which he entered on the loth of August, the feast of St Lawrence, Baye Sainct Laurens, and the name gradually extended over the whole river, though Cartier himself always wrote of the River of Canada. Early in September, he reached " Canada," now Quebec, and on the 2nd of October reached Hochelaga, now Montreal. No permanent settlement was then made. The first, Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, was established by Champlain in 1603, and Quebec was settled by him in 1608. Between that time and 1616 Champlain explored the whole river system as far west as Lake Huron, reaching it by way of the Ottawa river, and taking possession of the country in the name of the king of France. It became British by the treaty of Paris, in 1763. See S. E. Dawson, The St Lawrence, its Basin and Border Lands (New York, 1905) (historical); St Lawrence Pilot (7th ed., Hydro- graphic Office, Admiralty, London, 1906) ; Sailing Directions for the St Lawrence River to Montreal (United States Hydrographic Office publication, No. 108 D, Washington, 1907): Annual Reports of the Canadian Departments of Marine and Fisheries, Public Works, and Railways and Canals, Ottawa); Transactions (Royal Society, Canada, 1898-1899), vol. iv. sec. iii.; T. C. Reefer on " Ice Floods and Winter Navigation of the St Lawrence," Transactions (Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Presidential Address of W. P. Anderson, on improvements to navigation on St Lawrence, 1904). (W. P. A.) ST LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (c. 1496-1559), lord deputy of Ireland, eldest son of Ralph St Leger, a gentleman of Kent, was educated abroad and at Cambridge. He quickly gained the favour of Henry VIII., and was appointed in 1537 president of a commission for inquiring into the condition of Ireland. This work he carried out with ability and obtained much useful knowledge of the country. In 1540 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland. His first task was to repress disorder, and he at once proceeded with severity against the Kavanaghs, per- mitting them, however, to retain their lands, on their accepting feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy he exacted obedience from the O'Mores, the O'Tooles and the O'Conors in Leix and Offaly; and having conciliated the O'Briens in the west and the earl of Desmond in the south, the lord deputy carried an act in the Irish parliament in Dublin conferring the title of king of Ireland on Henry VIII. and his heirs. Conn O'Neill, who in the north had remained sullenly hostile, was brought to submission by vigorous measures. For the most part, however, St Leger's policy was one of moderation and conciliation — rather more so, indeed, than Henry VIII. approved. He recommended The O'Brien, when he gave token of a sub- missive disposition, for the title of earl of Thomond; O'Neill was created earl of Tyrone; and administrative council was instituted in the province of Munster; and in 1544 a levy of Irish soldiers was raised for service in Henry VIII. 's wars. St Leger's personal influence was proved by an outbreak of disturbance when he visited England in 1544, and the prompt restoration of order on his return some months later. St Leger retained his office under Edward VI., and again effectually quelled attempts at rebellion by the O'Conors and O'Byrnes. From 1548 to 1550 he was in England. He returned charged with the duty of introducing the reformed liturgy into Ireland. His conciliatory methods brought upon him the accusation that he lacked zeal in the cause, and led to his recall in the summer of 1551. After the accession of Mary he was again appointed lord deputy in October 1553, but in consequence of a charge against him of keeping false accounts he was recalled for the third time in 1556. While the accusation was still under investi- gation, he died on the i6th of March 1559. By his wife Agnes, daughter of Hugh Warham, a niece cf Archbishop Warham, he had three sons, William, Warham and Anthony. William died in his father's lifetime leaving a son, Sir Warham St Leger (d. 1600), who was father of Sir William St Leger (d. 1642), president of Munster. Sir William took part in " the flight of the earls " (see O'NEILL) in 1607, and spent several years abroad. Having received a pardon from James I. and extensive grants of land in Ireland, he was appointed president of Munster by Charles I. in 1627. He warmly supported the arbitrary government of Strafford, actively assisting in raising and drilling the Irish levies destined for the service of the king against the Parliament. In the great rebellion of 1641 he bore the chief responsibility for dealing with the insurgents in Munster; but the forces and supplies placed at his disposal were utterly inadequate. He executed martial law in his province with the greatest severity, hanging large numbers of rebels, often without much proof of guilt. He was still struggling with the insurrection when he died at Cork on the 2nd of July 1642. Sir William's daughter Margaret married Murrough O'Brien, i.st earl of Inchi- quin; his son John was father of Arthur St Leger, created Viscount Doneraile in 1703. A biography of Sir Anthony St Leger will be found in Athenae Cantabrigienses, by C. H. Cooper and T. Cooper (Cambridge, 1858) ; see also Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Hen. VIII.-Eliz. • Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. ; Calendar of State Papers (Domestic Series'), Edward VI. — James I.; Calendar of Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890) ; J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). For Sir William St Leger, see Strafford' s Letters and Despatches (2 vols., London, 1 739) ; Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert (Dublin, 1882-1891). (R. J. M.) ST LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SU6DEN, IST BARON (1781-1875), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of a hairdresser of Duke Street, Westminster, and was born on the 1 2th of February 1781. After practising for some years as a conveyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807, having already published his well-known treatise on the Law of Vendors and Purchasers (i4th ed., 1862). In 1822 he was made king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law; Lord Derby on his return to power in 1858 again offered him the same office, which from considerations of health he declined. He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed his particular attention on the reform of the law of property. He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, on the 29th of January 1875- ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS— ST LOUIS After his death his will was missing, but his daughter, Miss Charlotte Sugden, was able to recollect the contents of a most intricate document, and in the action of Sugden v. Lord St Leonards (L.R. i P.D. 154) the court accepted her evidence and granted probate of a paper propounded as containing the provisions of the lost will. This decision established the pro- position that the contents of a lost will may be proved by secondary evidence, even of a single witness. Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal publications, many of which have passed through several editions. Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New Real Property Laws and Handybook of Property Law, Misrepresenta- tions in Campbell's Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham, corrected by St Leonards. See The Times uoth of January 1875); E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904); J. R. Atlay, Lives of the Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii. ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS, a village of south-western France in the department of Ariege on the right bank of the Salat, i m. N.N.W. of St Girons. Pop. (1906) 615; commune 1295. St Lizier, in ancient times one of the twelve cities of Novempopulania under the name of Lugdunum Consoranorum, was later capital of the Couserans and seat of a bishopric (sup- pressed at the Revolution) to the holders of which the town belonged. It has a cathedral of the i2th and i4th centuries with a fine Romanesque cloister and preserves remarkable remains of Roman ramparts. The old episcopal palace (i7th century) and the adjoining church (i4th and iyth centuries), once the cathedral with its fine chapter-hall (i2th century), form part of a lunatic asylum. The Salat is crossed by a bridge of the 1 2th or I3th century. The town owes its name to its bishop Lycerius, who is said to have saved it from the Vandals in the 7th century. The chief event in its history was its devastation in 1130 by Bernard III., count of Comminges, a disaster from which it never completely recovered. ST Ld, a town of north-western France, capital of the depart- ment of Manche, 47 J m. W. by S. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) town 9379; commune, 12,181. St L6 is situated on a rocky hill on the right bank of the Vire. Its chief building is the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the i6th century. The facade, flanked by two lofty towers and richly decorated, is impressive, despite its lack of harmony. There is a Gothic pulpit outside the choir. In the h6tel-de-ville is the " Torigni marble," the pedestal of an ancient statue, the in- scriptions on which relate chiefly to the annual assemblies of the Gallic deputies held at Lyons under the Romans. The modern church of Sainte-Croix preserves a Romanesque portal which belonged to the church of an ancient Benedictine abbey. St L6 is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a training college for masters, a school of drawing, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber of arts and manu- factures, and a government stud. The town has trade in grain, fat stock, troop-horses and farm produce, and carries on tanning, wool-spinning and bleaching and the manufacture of woollen and other fabrics. St L6, called Briovera in the Gallo-Roman period, owes its present name to St L6 (Laudus), bishop of Coutances (d. 568). In the middle ages St L6 became an important fortress as well as a centre for the weaving industry. It sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1574, when the town, which had embraced Calvinism, was stormed by the Catholics and many of its inhabitants massacred. In 1800 the town was made capital of its department in place of Coutances. ST LOUIS, the chief city and a port of entry of Missouri, and the fourth in population among the cities of the United States, situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, about 20 m. below its confluence with the Missouri, 200 m. above the influx of the Ohio, and 1270 m. above the Gulf of Mexico, occupying a land area of 61-37 sq. m. in a commanding central position in the great drainage basin of the Mississippi system, the richest portion of the continent. Pop. (1880) 350,518, (1890) 451,770, (1000) 575,238, (191°) 687,029. The central site is marked by an abrupt terraced rise from the river to an easily sloping tableland, 4 or 5 m. long and somewhat less than i m. broad, behind which are rolling hills. The length of the river-front is about 19 m. The average elevation of the city is more than 425 ft.; and the recorded extremes of low and high water on the river are 379 and 428 ft. (both established in 1844). The higher portions of the city lie about 200 ft. above the river level, and in general the site is so elevated that there can be no serious interruption of business except by extraordinary floods. The natural drainage is excellent, and the sewerage system, long very imperfect, has been made adequate. The street plan is approximately rectilinear. The stone-paved wharf or river-front, known as the Levee or Front Street, is 3-7 m. long. Market Street, running E. and W., is regarded as the central thoroughfare; and the numbering of the streets is systematized with reference to this line and the river. Broadway (or Fifth Street, from the river) and Olive Street are the chief shopping centres; Washington Avenue, First (or Main) and Second Streets are devoted to wholesale trade; and Fourth Street is the financial centre. The most important public buildings are the Federal building, built of Maine granite; the county court house (1839- 1862, $1,199,872), — a semi-classic, plain, massive stone structure, the Four Courts (1871, $755,000), built of cream-coloured Joliet stone, and a rather effective city hall (1890-1904, $2,000,000), in Victorian Gothic style in brick and stone. The chief slave- market before the Civil War was in front of the Court House. The City Art Museum, a handsome semi-classic structure of original design, and the Tudor-Gothic building of the Washington University, are perhaps the most satisfying structures in the city architecturally. Among other noteworthy buildings are the Public Library, the Mercantile Library, the Mercantile, the Mississippi Valley, the Missouri-Lincoln, and the St Louis Union Trust Com- pany buildings; the German-Renaissance home of the Mercantile Club; the florid building of the St Louis Club; the Merchants' Exchange; the Missouri School for the Blind; the Coliseum, built in 1897 for conventions, horse shows, &c., torn down in 1907 and rebuilt in Jefferson Avenue, and the Union Station, used by all the railways entering the city. This last was opened in 1894, and cost, including the site, $6,500,000; has a train-shed with thirty-two tracks, covers some eleven acres, and is one of the largest and finest railway stations in the world. The city owns a number of markets. In 1907 a special architectural commission, appointed to supervise the construction of new municipal buildings, purchased a site adjacent to the City Hall, for new city courts and jail, which were begun soon afterwards. The valley of Mill Creek (once a lake bed, " Chouteau Pond," and afterwards the central sewer) traverses the city from W. to E. and gives entry to railways coming from the W. into the Union Station. The terminal system for connecting Missouri with Illinois includes, in addition to the central passenger station, vast centralized freight warehouses and depots; an elevated railway along the levee; passenger and freight ferries across the Mississippi with railway connexions; two bridges across the river; and a tunnel leading to one of them under the streets of the city along the river front. The Merchants' Bridge (1887- 1890, $3,000,000), used solely by the railways, is 1366-5 ft. long in channel span, with approaches almost twice as long. The Eads Bridge (1868-1874; construction cost $6,536,730, total cost about $10,000,000) is 3 m. farther down the river; it carries both wagon ways and railway tracks, is 1627 ft. clear between shore abutments, and has three spans. Built entirely of steel above the piers, it is a happy combination of strength and grace, and was considered a marvel when erected. St Louis has exceptionally fine residential streets that are accounted among the handsomest in the world. The most notable are Portland Place, Westmoreland Place, Vandeventer Place, Kingsbury Place, &c., in the neighbourhood of Forest Park: broad parked avenues, closed with ornamental gateways, and flanked by large houses in fine grounds. The park system of the city is among the finest in the country, containing in 1910 2641-5 acres (cost to 1909, $6,417,745). Forest Park (1372 acres), maintained mainly in a natural, open-country state, is the largest single member of the system. In one end of it was held the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Tower Grove Park (277 acres) and the Missouri Botanical Gardens ST LOUIS (45 acres), probably the finest of their kind in the country, were gifts to the city from a public-spirited citizen, Henry Shaw (1800-1889), who also endowed the botanical school of Washington University. Carondelet (180 acres), O'Fallon (158 acres), and Fairground( 1 29 acres, including a 6s-acre athletic field) are the finest of the other parks. King's Highway is a boulevard (partly completed in 1910) from the Mississippi on the S. to the Mississippi on the N., crossing the western part of the city. In accord with a general movement in American cities late in the ipth century, St Louis made a beginning in the provision of small " neighbourhood parks," intended primarily to better the lives of the city's poor, and vacation playgrounds for children; and for this purpose five blocks of tenements were condemned by the city. In the different parks and public places are statues of Columbus, Shakespeare (Tower Grove Park) and Humboldt (Tower Grove Park), by Ferdinand von Mueller of Munich; a replica of the Schiller monument at Marbach in Germany, and of Houdon's Washington (Lafayette Park) ; statues of Thomas Hart Ben ton (Lafayette Park; by Harriet Hosmer), of Francis Preston Blair (W. W. Gardner) and Edward Bates (J. W. McDonald), both in Forest Park, and of General Grant (R. P. Bringhurst) in the City Hall Park; all of these being in bronze. In the cemeteries of the city — of which the largest are Belief ontaine (350 acres) and Calvary (415 acres) — there are notable monuments to Henry Shaw, and to Nathaniel Lyon, Sterling Price, Stephen W. Kearny and W. T. Sherman, all closely associated with St Louis or Missouri. There are various lake, river and highland pleasure-resorts near the city; and about 12 m. S. is Jefferson Barracks, a national military post of the first class. The old arsenal within the city, about which centred the opening events of the Civil War in Missouri, has been mainly abandoned, and part of the grounds given to the municipality for a park. The annual fair, or exposition, was held in the autumn of each year — except in war time — from 1855 to 1902, ceasing with the preparations for the World's Fair of 1904. One day of Fair Week (" Big Thursday ") was a city holiday; and one evening of the week was given over after 1878 to a nocturnal illuminated pageant known as the Procession of the Veiled Prophet, with accompaniments in the style of the carnival (Mardi Gras) at New Orleans; this pageant is still continued. Among the educational institutions of the city, Washington University, a largely endowed, non-sectarian, co-educational school opened in 1857, is the most prominent. Under its control are three secondary schools, Smith Academy and the Manual Training School for Boys, and Mary Institute for Girls. The university embraces a department of arts and sciences, which includes a college and a school of engineering and architecture, and special schools of law, medicine (1899), dentistry, fine arts, social economy and botany. Affiliated with the university is the St Louis School of Social Economy, called until 1909 the St Louis School of Philanthropy, and in 1906- 1909 affiliated with the university of Missouri. The Russell Sage Foundation co-operates with this school. In 1909 Washington University had 1045 students. In 1905 the department of arts and sciences and the law school were removed to the outskirts of the city, where a group of buildings of Tudor-Gothic style in red Missouri granite were erected upon grounds, which with about $6,000,000 for buildings and endowment, were given to the univer- sity. St Louis University had its beginnings (1818) as a Latin academy, became a college in 1820, and was incorporated as a university in 1832. One of the leading Jesuit colleges of the United States, it is the parent-school of six other prominent Jesuit colleges in the Middle West. In 1910 it comprised a school of philosophy and science ( 1 832 ) , a divinity school ( 1 834) , a medical school ( 1 836) , a law school (1843), a dental school (1908), a college, three academies and a commercial department; and its enrolment was 1181. It is the third largest, and the Christian Brothers' College (1851), also Roman Catholic, is the fourth largest educational institution in the state. The Christian Brothers' College had in 1910 30 instructors and 500 students, most of whom were in the preparatory department. Besides the Divinity School of St Louis University, there are three theological seminaries, Concordia (Evangelical Lutheran, 1839), Eden Evangelical College (German Evangelical Synod of North America, 1850) and Kenrick Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894). There are two evening law schools, Benton College (1896) and Metropolitan College (1901). The public school system came into national prominence under the administration (1867-1880) of William T. Harris, and for many years has been recognized as one of the best in the United States. The first permanent kindergarten in the country in connexion with the public schools was established in St Louis in 1 873 by W. T. Harris (?•»•), then superintendent of schools, and Miss Susan Ellen Blow. The first public kindergarten training school was established at the same time. There is a teachers' college in the city school system, and there are special schools for backward children. Several school buildings have been successfully used as civic centres. The city has an excellent educational museum, material from which is avail- able for object lessons in nature study, history, geography, art, &c., in all public schools. In the year 1907-1908 the total receipts for public education were $4,219,000, and the expenditure was $3,789,604. The City Board of Education was chartered in 1897. The German element has lent strength to musical and gymnastic societies. The Museum and School of Fine Arts was established in 1879 as the Art Department of Washington University. In 1908 it first received the proceeds of a city tax of one-fifth mill per dollar, and in 1909 it was reorganized as the City Art Museum. In its building (the " Art Palace," built in 1903-1904 at a cost of $943,000 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; now owned by the city) in Forest Park are excellent collections (largely loaned) of sculpture and paintings (illustrating particularly the development of American art) and of art objects. The School of Fine Arts, now separate from the museum and a part of Washington University, has classes in painting, drawing, design, illustration, modelling, pottery, book- binding, &c. Among the libraries the greatest collections are those of the Mercantile Library (in 1910, 136,000 volumes and pamphlets), a subscription library founded in 1846, and the public library (1865) — a fine city library since 1894, with 312,000 volumes in 1910 and six branch libraries, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the city $500,000 towards the new public library, which was begun in 1909 and cost $1,500,000. Other notable collections are those of the St Louis Academy of Science and of the Missouri Botanical Gardens. There are at least three newspapers of national repute : the Republic, established in 1808 as the Missouri Gazette, and in 1822—1886 called the Missouri Republican; the Globe-Democrat (1852); and the Westliche Post (1857). In trade, industry and wealth St Louis is one of the most substantial cities of the Union. Its growth has been steady; but without such " booms " as have marked the history of many western cities, and especially Chicago, of which St Louis was for several decades the avowed rival. The primacy of the northern city was clear, however, by 1880. St Louis has borne a reputa- tion for conservatism and solidity. Its manufactures aggregate three-fifths the value of the total output of the state. In 1880 their value was $114,333,375, and in 1890 $228,700,000; the value of the factory product was $193, 732, 788 in 1900, and in 1905 $267,307,038 (increase 1900-1905, 38%). Tobacco goods, malt liquors, boots and shoes and slaughtering and meat-packing products were the leading items in 1905. The packing industry is even more largely developed outside the city limits and across the river in East St Louis. St Louis is the greatest manufacturer of tobacco products among American cities, and probably in the world; the total in 1905 was 8-96% of the total out- put of manufactured tobacco in the United States; and the output of chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff in 1900 constituted 23'5% and in 1905 23-7% of the product of the country. St Louis is also the foremost producer of white lead, street and railway cars, and wooden ware; and in addition to these and the items above particularized, has immense manufactories of clothing, coffee and spices (roasted), paints, stoves and furnaces, flour, hardware, drugs and chemicals and clay products. One of its breweries is said to be the largest in the world. Aside from traffic in its own products, the central position of the city in the Mississippi Valley gives it an immense trade in the pro- ducts of that tributary region, among which grains, cotton, tobacco, lumber, live stock and their derived products are the staples. In addition, it is a jobbing centre of immense interests in the distribu- tion of other goods. The greatest lines of wholesale trade are dry goods, millinery and notions; groceries and allied lines; boots and shoes; tobacco; shelf and heavy hardware; furniture; railway supplies; street and railway cars; foundry and allied products; drugs, chemicals and proprietary medicines; beer; wooden- ware; agricultural implements; hides; paints; paint oils and white lead; electrical supplies; stoves, ranges and furnaces; and furs — the value of these different items ranging from 70 to 10 million dollars each.1 According to the St Louis Board of Trade, St Louis is the largest primary fur market of the world, drawing supplies even from northern Canada. As a wool market Boston alone surpasses it, and as a vehicle market it stands in the second or third place. In the other industries just named, it claims to stand first among the cities of the Union. It is one of the greatest interior cotton markets of the country — drawing its supplies mainly from Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma — but a large part of its receipts are for shipment on through bills of lading, and are not net receipts handled by its 1 These are arranged in the order shown by the Annual Statement for 1906 reported to the Merchants' Exchange. 26 ST LOUIS own factors. The gross cotton movement continues to increase, but the field of supply has been progressively lessened by the development of Galveston and other ports on the gulf. As a grain and stock market St Louis has felt the competition of Kansas City and St Joseph. River and railway transportation built up in turn the command- ing commercial position of the city. The enormous growth of river traffic in the decade before 1860 gave it at the opening of the Civil War an incontestable primacy in the West. In 1910 about twenty independent railway systems, great and small (including two terminal roads within the city), gave outlet and inlet to commerce at St Louis; and of these fifteen are among the greatest systems of the country: the Baltimore & Ohio South- western, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Missouri Pacific, the Pennsylvania, the St Louis South- Western, the Southern, the Wabash, the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western. The construction of the Missouri Pacific Railway system was begun at St Louis in 1850, and various other roads were started in the next two years. For several decades railway develop- ment served only to increase the commercial primacy of the city in the southern Mississippi Valley, but in more recent years the concentration of roads at Kansas City enabled that place to draw from the west and south-west an immense trade once held by St Louis. River freighting is of very slight importance. St Louis is a port of entry for foreign commerce; its imports in 1907 were valued at $7,442,967; in 1909 at $6,362,770. The population of St Louis in 1840 was 16,469; in 1850 it was 77,860 (seventh in size of the cities of the country); in 1860, 160,773; in 1870, 310,864 (third in size); in 1880, 350,518; in 1890, 451,770; in 1900, 575,238; and in 1910, 687,029. Since 1890 it has been fourth in population among the cities of the United States. Of the population in 1000 (575,238) 111,356 were foreign-born and 35,516 were negroes. Of the foreign-born in 1900, 58,781 were Germans, 19,421 were Irish, 5800 were English, 4785 Russian. In 1900, 154,746 inhabitants of St Louis were children of German parents. Under the state constitution of 1875 St Louis, as a city of 100,000 inhabitants, was authorized to frame its own charter, and also to separate from St Louis county. These rights were exercised in 1876. The General Assembly of the state holds the same powers over St Louis as over other cities. The electorate may pass upon proposed amendments to the charter at any election, after due precedent publication thereof. The mayor holds office for four years. In 1823 the mayor was first elected by popular vote and .the municipal legislature became unicameral. The bicameral system was again adopted in 1839. The municipal assembly consists of a Council of 13 chosen at large for four years — half each two years — and a House of Delegates, 28 in number, chosen by wards for two years. A number of chief executive officers are elected for four years; the mayor and Council appoint others, and the appointment is made at the middle of the mayor's term in order to lessen the immediate influence of municipal patronage upon elections. Single com- missioners control the parks, streets, water service, harbour and wharves, and sewers, and these constitute, with the mayor, a board of public improvement. Under an enabling act of 1907 the municipal assembly in 1909 created a public service com- mission, of three members, appointed by the mayor. The measure of control exercised by the state is important, the governor appointing the excise (liquor-licence) commissioner, the board of election commissioners, the inspector of petroleum and of tobacco, and (since 1861) the police board. St Louis is normally Republican in politics, and Missouri Democratic. Taxes for state and municipal purposes are collected by the city. The school board, as in very few other cities of the country, has independent taxing power. The city owns the steamboat landings and draws a small revenue from their rental. The heaviest expenses are for streets and parks, debt payments, police and education. The bonded debt in 1910 was $27,815,312, and the assessed valuation of property in that year was $550,207,640. The city maintains hospitals, a poor-house, a reformatory work-house, an industrial school for children, and an asylum for the insane. The water-supply of the city is derived from the Mississippi, and is therefore potentially inexhaustible. Settling basins and a coagu- lant chemical plant (1904) are used to purify the water before distribution. After the completion of the Chicago drainage canal the state of Missouri endeavoured to compel its closure, on the ground that it polluted the Mississippi; but it was established to the satisfaction of the Supreme Court of the United States that the back- flush from Lake Michigan had the contrary effect upon the Illinois river, and therefore upon the Mississippi. Except for sediment the water-supply is not impure or objectionable. No public utilities, except the water-works, markets and public grain elevators, are owned by the city. The street railways are controlled — since a state law of 1899 permitted their consolidation — by one corporation, though a one-fare, universal transfer 5-cent rate is in general opera- tion. A single corporation has controlled the gas service from 1846 to 1873 and since 1890, though under no exclusive franchise; and the city has not the right of purchase. St Louis was settled as a trading post in 1764 by Pierre Laclede Liguest (1724-1778), representative of a company to which the French crown had granted a monopoly of the trade of the Missouri river country. When, by the treaty of Paris of 1763, the portion of Louisiana E. of the Mississippi was ceded by France to Great Britain, many of the French inhabitants of the district of the Illinois removed into the portion of Louisiana W. of the river, which had passed in 1762 under Spanish sovereignty; and of this lessened territory of upper Louisiana St Louis became the seat of government. In 1767 it was a log-cabin village of perhaps 500 inhabitants. Spanish rule became an actuality in 1770 and continued until 1804, when it was momentarily sup- planted by French authority — existent theoretically since 1800 — and then, after the Louisiana Purchase, by the sovereignty of the United States. In 1780 the town was attacked by Indian allies of Great Britain. Canadian-French hunters and trappers and boatmen, a few Spaniards and other Europeans, some Indians, more half-breeds, and a considerable body of Americans and negro slaves made up the motley population that became inhabitants of the United States. The fur trade was growing rapidly. Under American rule there was added the trade of a military supply-point for the Great West, and in 1817-1810 steamship traffic was begun with Louisville, New Orleans, and the lower Missouri river. Meanwhile, in 1808, St Louis was incorporated as a town, and in 1823 it became a city. The city charter became effective in March 1823. The early 'thirties marked the beginning of its great prosperity, and the decade 1850-1860 was one of colossal growth, due largely to the river trade. All freights were being moved by steamship as early as 1825. The first railway was begun in 1850. At the opening of the Civil War the commercial position of the city was most commanding. Its prosperity, however, was dependent upon the prosperity of the South, and received a fearful set-back in the war. When the issue of secession or adherence to the Union had been made up in 1861, the outcome in St Louis, where the fate of the state must necessarily be decided, was of national importance. St Louis was headquarters for an army department and con- tained a great national arsenal. The secessionists tried to manoeuvre the state out of the Union by strategy, and to seize the arsenal. The last was prevented by Congressman Francis Preston Blair, Jr., and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, first a sub- ordinate and later commander at the arsenal. The garrison was strengthened; in April the president entrusted Blair and other loyal civilians with power to enlist loyal citizens, and put the city under martial law if necessary; in May ten regiments were ready — made up largely of German-American Republican clubs (" Wide Awakes "), which had been at first purely political, then — when force became necessary to secure election rights to anti-slavery men — semi-military, and which now were quickly made available for war; and on the loth of May Captain Lyon surrounded and made prisoners a force of secessionists quartered in Camp Jackson on the outskirts of the city. A street riot followed, and 28 persons were killed by the volleys of the military. St Louis was held by the Union forces throughout the war. ST LOUIS— ST LUCIA 27 During a quarter century following 1857 the city was the centre of an idealistic philosophical movement that has had hardly any counterpart in American culture except New England trans- cendentalism. Its founders were William T. Harris (q.v.) and Henry C. Brockmeyer (b. 1828), who was lieutenant-governor of the state in 1876-1880. A. Bronson Alcott was one of the early lecturers to the group which gathered around these two, a group which studied Hegel and Kant, Plato and Aristotle. Brockmeyer published excellent versions of Hegel's Unabridged Logic, Phenomenology and Psychology. Harris became the greatest of American exponents of Hegel. Other members of the group were Thomas Davidson (1840-1900), Adolph E. Kroeger, the translator of Fichte, Anna Callender Brackett (b. 1836), who published in 1886 an English version of Rosenkranz's History of Education, Denton Jaques Snider (b. 1841), whose best work has been on Froebel, and William McKendree Bryant (b. 1843), who wrote Hegel's Philosophy of Art (1879) and Hegel's Educa- tional Ideas (1896). This Philosophical Society published (1867- 1893) at St Louis The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, the first periodical of the sort in English. Since the war the city's history has been signalized chiefly by economic development. A period in this was auspiciously closed in 1904 by the holding of a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the purchase from France, in 1803, of the Louisiana territory — since then divided into 13 states, and containing in 1900 some 1 2,500,000 inhabitants. Preparations for this Louisiana Purchase Exposition began in 1898. It was the largest world's fair held to date, the site covering 1240 acres, of which 250 were under roof. The total cost, apart from individual exhibitions, was about $42,500,000, of which the national government contributed $5,000,000 and the city of St Louis and its citizens $10,000,000. Altogether 12,804,616 paid admissions were collected (total admissions 19,694,855) during the seven months that it was open, and there was a favourable balance at the close of about $1,000,000. Up to 1848 St Louis was controlled in politics almost absolutely by the Whigs; since then it has been more or less evenly con- tested by the Democrats against the Whigs and Republicans. The Republicans now usually have the advantage. As men- tioned before, the state is habitually Democratic; " boss " rule in St Louis was particularly vicious in the late 'nineties, and corruption was the natural result of ring rule — the Democratic bosses have at times had great power — and of the low pay — only $25 monthly — of the city's delegates and councilmen. But the reaction came, and with it a strong movement for independent voting. Fire, floods, epidemics, and wind have repeatedly attacked the city. A great fire in 1849 burned along the levee and adjacent streets, destroying steamers, buildings, and goods worth, by the estimate of the city assessor, more than $6,000,000. Cholera broke out in 1832-1833, 1849-1851, and 1866, causing in three months of 1849 almost 4000 deaths, or the death of a twentieth of all inhabitants. Smallpox raged in 1872-1875. These epidemics probably reflect the one-time lamentable lack of proper sewerage. Great floods occurred in 1785, 1811, 1826, 1844, 1872, 1885 and 1903; those of 1785 and 1844 being the most remarkable. There were tornadoes in 1833, 1852 and 1871; and in 1896 a cyclone of 20 minutes' duration, accom- panied by fire but followed fortunately by a tremendous rain, destroyed or wrecked 8500 buildings and caused a loss of property valued at more than $10,000,000. EAST ST Louis, a city of St Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi, lies opposite St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1880), 9185; (1890), 15,169; (1900), 29,655, of whom 3920 were foreign born (mostly German and Irish); (1910 census) 58,547. It is one of the great railway centres of the country. Into it enter from the east sixteen lines of railway, which cross to St Louis by the celebrated steel arch bridge and by the Merchants' Bridge. It is also served by three inter- • urban electric railways. The site of East St Louis is in the " American Bottom," little above the high-water mark of the river. This " bottom " stretches a long distance up and down the river, with a breadth of 10 or 1 2 m. It is intersected by many sloughs and crescent-shaped lakes which indicate former courses of the river. The manufacturing interests of East St Louis are important, among the manufactories being packing establish- ments, iron and steel works, rolh'ng-mills and foundries, flour- mills, glass works, paint works and wheel works. By far the. most important industry is slaughtering and meat packing: both in 1900 and in 1905 East St Louis ranked sixth among the cities of the United States in this industry; its product in 1900 was valued at $27,676,818 (out of a total for all industries of $32,460,957), and in 1905 the product of the slaughtering and meat-packing establishments in and near the limits of East St Louis was valued at $39,972,245, in the same year the total for all industries within the corporate limits being only $37,586,198. The city has a large horse and mule market. East St Louis was laid out about 1818, incorporated as a town in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1865. Consult the Encyclopaedia of the History of St Louis (4 vols., St Louis, 1899); J. T. Scharf, History of St Louis City and County . . . including Biographical Sketches (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1883); E. H. Shepherd, Early History of St Louis and Missouri . . . 1763- 1843 (St Louis, 1870); F. Billon, Annals of St Louis . . . 1804 to 1821 (2 vols., St Louis, 1886-1888); G. Anderson, Story of a Border City during the Civil War (Boston, 1908); The Annual Statement of the Trade and Commerce of St Louis . . . reported to the Merchants' Exchange, by its secretary. ST LOUIS, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, West Africa, with a population (1904) of 24,070, or including the suburbs, 28,469. St Louis, known to the natives as N'dar, is 163 m. by rail N.N.E. of Dakar and is situated on an island n| m. above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right bank, there separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie. This strip of sand is occupied by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Three bridges connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe, 2132 ft. long, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb on the left bank, and the terminus of the railway to Dakar. The houses of the European quarter have for the most part flat roofs, balconies and terraces. Besides the governor's residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the great mosque, the court-house, the barracks and military offices, and the docks. The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of villas with gardens, and is a summer watering-place. There is a pleasant public garden, and N'dar Toute is approached by a magnificent alley of palm-trees. The low-lying position of St Louis and the extreme heat render it unhealthy, whilst the sandy nature of the soil causes intense inconvenience. The mouth of the Senegal being obstructed by a shifting bar of sand, the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to St Louis; passengers embark and land at Dakar, on the eastern side of Cape Verde. Ships for St Louis have often to wait outside or inside the bar for days or weeks, and partial unloading is frequently necessary. From July to the end of September — that is during flood-time — the water over the bar is, however, deep enough to enable vessels to reach St Louis without difficulty. St Louis is believed to have been the site of a European settlement since the isth century, but the present town was founded in 1626 by Dieppe merchants known as the Cpmpagnie normande. It is the oldest colonial establishment in Africa belonging to France (see SENEGAL). Its modern development dates from 1854. The town, however, did not receive municipal government till 1872. All citizens, irrespective of colour, can vote. From 1895 to 1903 St Louis was not only the capital of Senegal, but the residence of the governor-general of French West Africa. In November of the last- named year the governor-general removed to Dakar. Small forts defend St Louis from the land side — the surrounding country, the Cayor, being inhabited by a warlike race, which previously to the building (1882-1885) °f the St Louis- Dakar railway was a continual source of trouble. The town carries on a very active trade with all the countries watered by the Senegal and the middle Niger. St Louis is connected with Brest by a direct cable, and with Cadiz via the Canary Islands. ST LUCIA, the largest of the British Windward Islands, West Indies, in 14° N., 61° W., 24 m. S. of Martinique and 21 m. N.E. of St Vincent. Its area is 233 sq. m., length 42 m., maximum breadth 1 2 m., and its coast-line is 1 50 m. long. It is considered one of the loveliest of all the West Indian islands. It is a mass 28 ST MACAIRE— ST MALO of mountains, rising sheer from the water, their summits bathed in perpetual mist. Impenetrable forests alternate with fertile plains, and deep ravines and frowning precipices with beautiful bays and coves. Everywhere there is luxuriant vegetation. Les Pitons (2720 and 2680 ft.) are the chief natural feature — two immense pyramids of rock rising abruptly from the sea, their slopes, inclined at an angle of 60°, being clad on three sides with densest verdure. No connexion has been traced between them and the mountain system of the island. In the S.W. also is the volcano of Soufnere (about 4000 ft.), whose crater is 3 acres in size and covered with sulphur and cinders. The climate is humid, the rain- fall varying from 70 to 120 in. per annum, with an average tempera- ture of 80 F. The soil is deep and rich; the main products are sugar, cocoa, logwood, coffee, nutmegs, mace, kola-nuts and vanilla, all of which are exported. Tobacco also is grown, but not for export. The usine or central factory system is established, there being four government sugar-mills. Snakes, formerly prevalent, have been almost exterminated by the introduction of the mongoose. Only about a third of the island is cultivated, the rest being crown land under virgin forest, abounding in timber suitable for the finest cabinet work. The main import trade up to 1904 was from Great Britain; since then, owing to the increased coal imports from the United States, the imports are chiefly from other countries. The majority of the exports go to the United States and to Canada. In the ten years 1898-1907 the imports averaged £322,000 a year; the exports £195,000 a year. Bunker coal forms a large item both in imports and exports. Coal, sugar, cocoa and logwood form the chief exports. Education is denominational, assisted by government grants. The large majority of the schools are under the control of the Roman Catholics, to whom all the government primary schools were handed over in 1898. There is a government agricultural school. St Lucia is controlled by an administrator (responsible to the governor of the Windward Islands) , assisted by an executive council. The legislature consists of the administrator and a council of nominated members. Revenue and expenditure in the period 1901— 1907 balanced at about £60,000 a year. The law of the island preserves, in a modified form, the laws of the French monarchy. Castries, the capital, on the N.W. coast, has a magnificent land- locked harbour. There is a concrete wharf 650 ft. long with a depth alongside of 27 ft., and a wharf of wood 552 ft. in length. It is the principal coaling station of the British fleet in the West Indies, was strongly fortified, and has been the military headquarters. (The troops were removed and the military works stopped in 1905.) It is a port of registry, and the facilities it offers as a port of call are widely recognized, the tonnage of ships cleared and entered rising from 1,555,000 in 1898 to 2,627,000 in 1907. Pop. {1901) 7910. Soufriere, m the south, the only other town of any importance, had a population of 2394. The Canbs have disappeared from the island, and the bulk of the .inhabitants are negroes. Their language is a French patois, but English is gradually replacing it. There is a small colony of East Indian coolies, and the white inhabitants are mostly Creoles of French descent. The total population of the island (1901) is 49.833- History. — St Lucia is supposed to have been discovered by Columbus in 1502, and to have been named by the Spaniards after the saint on whose day it was discovered. It was inhabited by Caribs, who killed the majority of the first white people (Englishmen) who attempted to settle on the island (1605). For two centuries St Lucia was claimed both by France and by England. In 1627 the famous Carlisle grant included St Lucia among British possessions, while in 1635 the king of France granted it to two of his subjects. In 1638 some 130 English from St Kills formed a selllemenl, bul in 1641 were killed or driven away by Ihe Caribs. The French in 1650 senl seltlers from Martinique who concluded a treaty of peace with the Caribs in 1660. Thomas Warner, natural son of the governor of St Kills, allacked and overpowered Ihe French selllers in 1663, bul Ihe peace of Breda (1667) restored it to France and it became nominally a dependency of Martinique. The British still claimed Ihe island as a dependency of Barbadoes, and in 1722 George I. made a granl of il lo the duke of Monlague. The year following French Iroops from Martinique compelled the British settlers to evacuate the island. In 1748 both France and Great Brilain recognized Ihe island as " neutral." In 1762 its inhabitanls surrendered lo Admiral Rodney and General Moncklon. By Ihe Ireaty of Paris (1763), however, the British acknowledged the claims of France, and steps were taken lo develop the resources of Ihe island. French planlers came from Si Vincenl and Grenada,collon and sugar plantations were formed, and in 1772 the island was said to have a population of 15,000, largely slaves. In 1778 it was captured by the British; its harbours were a rendezvous for the British squadrons and Gros Ilet Bay was Rodney's starting-point before his victory over the Comte de Grasse (April 1782). The peace of Versailles (1783) restored St Lucia to France, but in 1 794 it was surrendered to Admiral Jervis (Lord St Vincent). Viclor Hugues, a partisan of Robespierre, aided by insurgent slaves, made a strenuous resistance and recovered the island in June 1795. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Sir John Moore, at the head of 1 2,000 troops, were sent in 1796 to reduce the island, but it was not until 1797 that the revolutionists laid down their arms. By the trealy of Amiens Si Lucia was anew declared French. Bonaparte intended to make it the capital of the Antilles, but it once more capitulated to Ihe Brilish (June 1803) and was finally ceded lo Greal Brilain in 1814. In 1834, when the slaves were emanci- pated, there were in Si Lucia over 13,000 negro slaves, 2600 free men of colour and 2300 whites. The developmenl of Ihe island — half ruined by the revolutionary war — has been retarded by epidemics of cholera and smallpox, by the decline of the sugar- cane industry and other causes, such as the low level of education. The depression in Ihe sugar Irade led to the adoption of cocoa cultivalion. Efforts were also made lo planl settlers on the crown lands — with a fair amount of success. The colony success- fully surmounted the financial stringency caused by the with- drawal of the imperial troops in 1905. Pigeon Island, formerly an importanl mililary port, lies off Ihe N.W. end of Si Lucia, by Gros Ilel Bay. See Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography in the British Colonies, vol. ii., " The West Indies " (2nd ed. revised by C. Atchley, Oxford, 1905), and the works there cited; also the annual reports on St Lucia issued by the Colonial Office. ST MACAIRE, a town of south-western France, in the depart- menl of Gironde, on Ihe Garonne, 29 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), 2085. Si Macaire is imporlanl for ils medieval remains, which include a Iriple line of ramparls wilh old gale- ways. There are also several houses of Ihe I3lh and I4lh cenluries. The imposing church of Si Sauveur (nlh lo islh cenluries) has a doorway wilh beautiful 13th-century carving and interesting mural paintings. St Macaire (anc. Ligena) owes its name to the saint whose relics were preserved in the monastery of which the church of St Sauveur is the principal remnanl. ST MAIXENT, a lown of weslern France, in Ihe departmenl of Deux-Sevres, on the Sevre Niortaise, 15 m. N.E. ofNiortby rail. Pop. (1906), 4102. The town has a fine abbey church built from the I2th to the isth century, but in great part destroyed by the Protestants in the i6th cenlury and rebuill from 1670 lo 1682 in the flamboyant Golhic style. The chief parts anterior to this date are the nave, which is Romanesque, and a lofty isth-cenlury lower over the west front. The crypt contains the tomb of Saint Maxentius, second abbol of Ihe monaslery, which was founded about 460. The town has a com- munal college, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and an infantry school for non-commissioned officers preparing for the rank of sub-lieutenant. It was Ihe birthplace of Colonel Denfert- Rochereau, defender of Belfort in 1870-1871, and has a slalue to him. The industries include dyeing and the manufacture of hosiery, muslard and plaster. The prosperity of the lown was al ils heighl afler Ihe promulgalion of Ihe edicl of Nanles, when il numbered 12,000 inhabilants. ST MALO, a seaporl of weslern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in thedeparlment of llle-et-Vilaine, 51 m.N.N.W. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 8727; commune, 10,647. St Malo is siluated on the English Channel on the right bank of the estuary of the Ranee at its mouth. It is a garrison town sur- rounded by ramparls which include portions dating from the 1 4th, isth and f6th cenluries, bul as a whole were rebuill at the end of the iyth century according to Vauban's plans, and restored in the igth cenlury. The mosl importanl of the gales are lhal of Si Vincenl and Ihe Grande Porte, defended by two massive isth-cenlury towers. The granite island on which St Malo stands communicates with the mainland on the north- east by a causeway known as Ihe " Sillon " (furrow), 650 ft. long, and al one time only 46 ft. broad, though now three times that breadth. In the sea round aboul lie other granite rocks, SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN— SAINT-MARTIN 29 which have been turned to account in the defences of the coast; on the islet of the Grand Bey is the tomb (1848) of Frangois Auguste, vicomte de Chateaubriand, a native of the town. The rocks and beach are continually changing their appearance, owing to the violence of the tides; spring- tides sometimes rise 50 ft. above low-water level, and the sea sometimes washes over the ramparts. The harbour of St Malo lies south of the town in the creek separating it from the neighbouring town of St Servan. Including the contiguous and connected basins belonging more especially to St Servan, it comprises an outer basin, a tidal harbour, two wet-docks and an inner reservoir, affording a total length of quayage of over 2 m. The wet-docks have a minimum depth of 1310 15 ft. on sill, but the tidal harbour is dry at low water. The vessels entered at St Malo-St Servan in 1906 numbered 1004 of 279,217 tons; cleared 1023 of 298,720 tons. The great bulk of trade is with England, the exports comprising large quantities of fruit, dairy-produce, early potatoes and other vegetables and slate. The chief imports are coal and timber. The London and South-Western railway maintains a regular service of steamers between Southampton and St Malo. The port carries on shipbuilding and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The industries also include iron- and copper-founding and the manufacture of portable forges and other iron goods, cement, rope and artificial manures. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce. Communication between the quays of St Malo and St Servan is maintained by a travelling bridge. St Malo is largely frequented for sea-bathing, but not so much as Dinard, on the opposite side of the Ranee. The town presents a tortuous maze of narrow streets and small squares lined with high and sometimes quaint buildings (e.g. the 16th-century house in which Rene Duguay-Trouin was born). Above all rises the stone spire (1859) of the cathedral, a building begun in the 1 2th century but added to and rebuilt at several subsequent periods. The castle (isth cent.), which defends the town towards the " Sillon," is flanked with four towers, one of which, the great keep, is an older and loftier structure, breached in 1378 by the duke of Lancaster. St Malo has statues to Chateaubriand, Duguay-Trouin and the privateer Robert Surcouf (1773-1827), natives of the town. The museum contains remains of the ship " La Petite Hermine," in which Jacques Cartier sailed to the St Lawrence (q.v.), and a natural history collection. In the 6th century the island on which St Malo stands was the retreat of Abbot Aaron, who gave asylum in his monastery to Malo (Maclovius or Malovius), a Cambrian priest, who came hither to escape the episcopal dignity, but afterwards became bishop of Aleth (now St Servan); the see was transferred to St Malo only in the I2th century. Henceforth the bishops of St Malo claimed the temporal sovereignty over the town, a claim which was resolutely disputed by the dukes of Brittany. The policy of the citizens themselves, who thus gained substantial powers of self-government, was directed by consistent hostility to England and consequently to the dukes. They took the side of Bishop Josselin de Rohan and his successor in their quarrel with dukes John IV. and John V., and it was not till 1424 that John V., by the agency of Charles VI. of France and with the sanction of the pope, finally established his authority over the town. la 1488 St Malo unsuccessfully resisted the French troops on behalf of the duke. During the troubles of the League the citizens hoped to establish a republican government, and on the nth of March 1590 they exterminated the royal garrison and imprisoned their bishop and the canons. But four years later they surrendered to Henry IV. of France. During the following century the maritime power of St Malo attained some importance. In November 1693 ar|d July 1695 the English vainly bombarded it. The people of St Malo had in the course of a single war captured upwards of 1500 vessels (several of them laden with gold and other treasure) and burned a considerable number more. Enriched by these successes and by the wealth they drew from the New World, the shipowners of the town not only supplied the king with the means necessary for the famous Rio de Janeiro expedition conducted by Duguay-Trouin in 1711, but also lent him large sums for carrying on the war of the Spanish Succession. In June 1758 the English sent a third expedition against St Malo under the command of Charles Spencer, third duke of Marlborough, and inflicted great loss on the royal shipping in the harbour of St Servan. But another expedi- tion undertaken in the following September received a complete check. In 1778 and during the wars of the Empire the St Malo privateers resumed their activity. In 1789 St Servan was separated from St Malo and in 1801 St Malo lost its bishopric. During the Reign of Terror the town was the scene of sanguinary executions. See M. J. Poulain, Hisloire de Saint-Malo . . . d'apres Us docu- ments inedits (2nd ed., Lille, 1887). ' SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN (1801-1873), French politician and man of letters, whose real name was MARC GIRARDIN, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1801. After a brilliant uni- versity career in Paris he began in 1828 to contribute to the Journal des Debuts, on the staff of which he remained for nearly half a century. At the accession of Louis Philippe he was appointed professor of history at the Sorbonne and master of requests in the Conseil d'Etat. Soon afterwards he exchanged his chair of history for one of poetry, continuing to contribute political articles to the Debats, and sitting as deputy in the chamber from 1835 to 1848. He was charged in 1833 with a mission to study German methods of education, and issued a report advocating the necessity of newer methods and of technical instruction. In 1844 he was elected a member of the Academy. During the revolution of February 1848 Girardin was for a moment a minister, but after the establishment of the republic he was not re-elected deputy. After the war of 1870-71 he was returned to the Bordeaux assembly by his old department — the Haute Vienne. His Orleanist tendencies and his objections to the republic were strong, and though he at first supported Thiers, he afterwards became a leader of the opposition to the president. He died, however, on the ist of April 1873 at Morsang-sur-Seine, before Thiers was actually driven from power. His chief work is his Cours de litterature dramatique (1843-1863), a series of lectures better described by its second title De I'usage des passions dans le drame. The author examines the passions, discussing the mode in which they are treated in ancient and modern drama, poetry and romance. The book is really a defence of the ancients against the moderns, and Girardin did not take into account the fact that only the best of ancient literature hae come down to us. Against the Romanticists he waged untiring war. Among his other works may be noticed Essais de litterature (2 vols. 1844), made up chiefly of contributions to the Debats, his Notices sur I'Allemagne (1834), and many volumes of collected Souvenirs, Reflexions, &c., on foreign countries and passing events. His latest works of literary importance were La Fontaine et les Fabulistes (1867) and an Etude sur J.-J. Rousseau (1870) which had appeared in the Revue des deux mondes. See Ch. Labitte, " Saint-Marc Girardin," in the Revue des deux mondes (Feb. 1845); Tamisier, Saint-Marc Girardin; etude lilteraire (1876); Hatzfield and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires dit XIX' siede (1894). SAINT-MARTIN, LOUIS CLAUDE DE (1743-1803), French philosopher, known as " le philosophe inconnu," the name under which his works were published, was born at Amboise of a poor but noble family, on the i8th of January 1743. By his father's desire he tried first law and then the army as a profession. While in garrison at Bordeaux he came under the influence of Martinez de Pasquales, usually called a Portuguese Jew (although later research has made it probable that he was a Spanish Catholic), who taught a species of mysticism drawn from cabbalistic sources, and endeavoured to found thereon a secret cult with magical or theurgical rites. In 1771 Saint-Martin left the army to become a preacher of mysticism. His conversational powers made him welcome in Parisian salons, but his zeal led him to England, where he made the acquaintance of William Law (orary roadways for carriages and pedestrians are made across the ice and artificially lighted. In winter, too, thousands of peasants come in from the villages with their small Finnish horses and sledges to ply for hire. The Neva continues frozen for an average of 147 days in the year (25th November to 2ist April). It is unnavigable, however, for some time longer on account of the ice from Lake Ladoga, which is sometimes driven by easterly winds into the river at the end of April and beginning of May. The climate of St Petersburg is changeable and unhealthy. Frosts are made much more trying by the wind which accompanies them; and westerly gales in winter bring oceanic moisture and warmth, and melt the snow before and after hard frosts. The summer is hot, but short, lasting barely more than five or six weeks; a hot day, how- ever, is often followed by cold weather: changes of temperature amounting to 35° Fahr. within twenty-four hours are not un- common. In autumn a chilly dampness lasts for several weeks, and in spring cold and wet weather alternates with a few warm days. January. July. The Year. Mean temperature,' Fahr. . i5°-o 64°-o 38°-6 Rainfall, inches 0-9 2-6 18-8 Prevailing winds .... s.w! W. W. Average daily range of tempera- ture, Fahr 2°-2 IO°-2 7°-7 Topography. — The greater part of St Petersburg is situated on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva, including the best streets, the largest shops, the bazaars and markets, the palaces, cathedrals and theatres, as well as all the railway stations, except that of the Finland railway. From the Liteinyi bridge to that of Nicholas a granite embankment, bordered by palaces and large private houses, lines the left bank of the Neva. About midway, behind a range of fine houses, stands the Admiralty, the very centre of the capital. Formerly a wharf, on which Peter the Great caused his first Baltic ship to be built in 1706, it is now the seat of the ministry of the navy and of the hydrographical department, the new Admiralty building standing farther down the Neva on the same bank. A broad square, partly laid out as a garden (Alexander Garden), surrounds the Admiralty on the west, south and east. To the west, opposite the senate, stands the fine memorial to Peter the Great, erected in 1782, and now backed by the cathedral of St Isaac. A bronze statue, a master- piece by the French sculptor Falconet, represents the founder of the city on horseback, at full gallop, ascending a rock and pointing to the Neva. South of the Admiralty is the ministry of war and to the east the imperial winter palace, the work of Rastrelli (1764), a fine building of mixed style; but its admirable proportions mask its huge dimensions. It communicates by a gallery with the Hermitage Fine Arts Gallery. A broad semi- circular square, adorned by the Alexander I. column (1834), separates the palace from the buildings of the general staff and the foreign ministry. The range of palaces and private houses facing the embankment above the Admiralty is interrupted by the macadamized " Field of Mars," formerly a marsh, but transformed at incredible expense into a parade-ground,. and the Lyetniy Sad (summer-garden) of Peter the Great. The Neva embankment is continued to a little below the Nicholas bridge under the name of " English embankment," and farther down by the new Admiralty buildings. The topography of St Petersburg is very simple. Three long streets, the main arteries of the capital, radiate from the Admiralty — the ProspektNevskiy(Neva Prospect), the Gorokhovaya, and the Prospekt Voznesenskiy (Ascension Prospect). Three girdles of canals, roughly speaking concentric, intersect these three streets — the Moika, the Catherine and the Fontanka; to these a number of streets run parallel. The Prospekt Nevskiy is a very broad street, runhing straight east -south-east for 3200 yds. from the Admiralty to the Moscow railway station, and thence 1650 yds. farther, bending a little to the south, until it again reaches the Neva at Kalashnikov Harbour, near the vast com- plex of the Alexander Nevski monastery (1713), the seat of the metropolitan of St Petersburg. The part of the street first mentioned owes its picturesque aspect to its width, its alrractive shops, and still more its animation. But the buildings which border it are architecturally poor. Neither the cathedra] of the Virgin of Kazan (an ugly imitation on a small scale of St Peter's in Rome), nor the still uglier Gostiniy Dvor (a two-storied quadrilateral building divided into second-rate shops), nor the Anichkov Palace (which resembles immense barracks), nor even the Roman Catholic and Dutch churches do any thing to embellish it. About midway between the public library and the Anichkov Palace an elegant square hides the old-fashioned Alexandra theatre; nor does a profusely adorned memorial (1873) to Catherine II. beautify it much. The Gorokhovaya is narrow and badly paved, and is shut in between gloomy houses occupied mostly by artizans. The Voznesenskiy Prospekt, on the con- trary, though as narrow as the last, has better houses. On the north, it passes into a series of large squares connected with that in which the monument of Peter the Great stands. One of them is occupied by the cathedral of St Isaac (of Dalmatia), and another by the memorial (1859) to Nicholas I., the gorgeousness and bad taste of which contrast strangely with the simplicity and significance of that of Peter the Great. The general aspect of the cathedral is imposing both without and within; but on the whole this architectural monument, built between 1819 and 1858 according to a plan of Montferrant, under the personal direction of Nicholas I., does not correspond either with its costliness (£2,431,300) or with the efforts put forth for its decoration by the best Russian artists. ST PETERSBURG 39 The eastern extremity of Vasilyevskiy Island is the centre of commercial activity; the stock exchange is situated there as well as the quays and storehouses. The remainder of the island is occupied chiefly by scientific and educational institutions — the academy of science, with a small observatory, the university, the philological institute, the academy of the first corps of cadets, the academy of arts, the marine academy, the mining institute and the central physical observatory, all facing the Neva. Petersburg Island contains the fortress of St Peter and St Paul (1703-1740), opposite the Winter Palace; but the fortress is now a state prison. A cathedral which stands within its walls is the burial-place of the emperors and the imperial family. The mint and an artillery museum are also situated within the fortress. The remainder of the island is meanly built, and is the refuge of the poorer officials (chinovniks) and of the intellectual proletariat. Its northern part, separated from the main island by a narrow channel, bears the name of Apothecaries' Island, and is occupied by a botanical garden of great scientific value and several fine private gardens and parks. Krestovskiy, Elagin and Kamennyi Islands, as also the opposite (right) bank of the Great Nevka (one of the branches of the Neva) are occupied by public gardens, parks and summer residences. The mainland on the right bank of the Neva above its delta is known as the Viborg Side, and is connected with the main city by the Liteinyi bridge, closely adjoining which are the buildings of the military academy of medicine and spacious hospitals. The small streets (many of them unpaved), with numerous wooden houses, are inhabited by students and workmen; farther north are great textile and iron factories. Vast orchards and the yards of the artillery laboratory stretch north-eastwards, while the railway and the high road to Finland, running north, lead to the park of the Forestry Institute. The two villages of Okhta, on the right bank, are suburbs; higher up, on the left bank, are several factories (Alexandrovsk) which formerly belonged to the crown. The true boundary of St Petersburg on the south is the Obvodnyi Canal, running parallel to the three canals already mentioned and forming a sort of base to the Neva peninsula; but numerous orchards, cemeteries and factories, and even unoccupied spaces, are included within the city boundaries in that direction, though they are being rapidly covered with buildings. Except in a few principal streets, which are paved with wood or asphalt, the pavement is usually of granite setts. There are two government dockyards, the most important of which is the new admiralty yard in the centre of the city. At this yard there are three building slips and a large experimental basin, some 400 ft. in length, for trials with models of vessels. The Galerny Island yard is a little lower down the river, and is devoted entirely to construction. There are two building slips for large vessels, besides numerous workshops, storehouses and so forth. The Baltic Yard is near the mouth of the Neva, and was taken over by the ministry of marine in 1894. Since that time the establish- ment has been enlarged, and a new stone building slip, 520 ft. in length, completely housed in, has been finished. Population. — The population of St Petersburg proper at the censuses specified was as follows: — Year. Total. Men. Women. Proportion of Men to every 100 Women. 1869 1881 1890 1897 667,207 861,303 954,400 1,132,677 377.38o 473-229 512,718 616,855 289,827 388,074 441,682 515.822 130 122 116 119 A further increase was revealed by the municipal census of 1900, when the population of the city was 1,248,739, having thus increased 30-9% in ten years. In 1905 the total population was estimated to number 1,429,000. The population of the suburbs was 134,710 in 1897, and 190,635 in 1900. Including its suburbs, St Petersburg is the fifth city of Europe in point of size, coming after London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. The large proportion of men in its population is due to the fact that great numbers come from other parts of Russia to work during the winter in the textile factories, and during the summer at un- loading the boats. Russians numbered 828, 354 in 1897, or 73-1% of the population; Germans 43,798, or 3-9%; Poles 22,307, or 1-9%; Finns, 16,731, or 1.5%; and Jews 10,353, or 0-9%. The various religions are represented by 84-9% Orthodox Greeks, 9-9 Protestants, and 3-3 Roman Catholics. The pro- portion of illegitimate children is ten times higher than in the rest of Russia, namely 250 to 286 per thousand births. It is thus nearly the same as in Paris, but lower than in Moscow (292 per thousand) and Vienna (349 per thousand). The mortality varies very much in different parts of the city — from 12 per thousand in the best situated, the admiralty quarter, to 16 in other central parts, and 25 and 27 in the outlying quarters. The mortality has, however, notably decreased, as it averaged 36 per thousand in the years 1870 to 1874, and only 27 from 1886 to 1895, and 24 in 1897. Infectious diseases, i.e. turberculosis, diphtheria, inflammation of the lungs, typhoid, scarlet fever and measles, are the cause of 37 to 38% of all deaths. The high mortality in certain quarters is largely due to overcrowding and bad water. An interesting feature of the Russian capital is the very high proportion of people living on their own earnings or income (" independent ") as compared with those who live on the earnings or income of some one else (" dependent "). Only a few industrial establishments employ more than twenty workmen, the average being less than ten and the figure seldom falling below five. The large factories are beyond the limits of St Petersburg. Although 36 % of the population above six years old are unable to read, the workmen are amongst the most intelligent classes in Russia. Education, Science and Art. — Notwithstanding the hardships and prosecutions to which it is periodically subjected, the university (nearly 4000 students) exercises a pronounced influence en the life of St Petersburg. The medical faculty forms a separate academy, under military jurisdiction, with about 1500 students. There are, moreover, a philological institute, a technological institute, a forestry academy, an engineering academy, two theological academies (Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic), an academy of arts, five military academies and a high school of law. Higher instruction for women is provided by a medical academy, a free university, four other institutions for higher education, and a school of agriculture. The scientific institutions include an academy of sciences, opened in 1726, which has rendered 'immense service in the exploration of Russia. The oft-repeated reproach that it keeps its doors shut to Russian savants, while opening them too widely to German ones, is not without foundation. The Pulkovo astronomical observatory, the chief physical (meteorological) observatory (with branches throughout Russia and Siberia), the astronomical observatory at Vilna, the astronomical and magnetical observatory at Peking, and the botanical garden, are all attached to the academy of sciences. The Society of Naturalists and the Physical and Chemical Society have issued most valuable publications. The geological committee is ably pushing forward the geological survey of the country; the Mineralogical Society was founded in 1817. The Geographical Society, with branch societies for West and East Siberia, Caucasus, Orenburg, the north-western and south-western provinces of European Russia, is well known for its valuable work, as is also the Entomological Society. There are four medical societies, and an archaeological society (since 1846), an historical society, an economical society, gardening, forestry, technical and navigation societies. The conservatory of music, with a new building (1891-1896), gives superior musical instruction. The Musical Society is worthy of notice. Art, on the other hand, has not freed itself from the old scholastic methods at the academy. Several independent artistic societies seek to remedy this drawback, and are the true cradle of the Russian genre painters. The imperial public library contains valuable collections of books (1,000,000) and MSS. The library of the academy of sciences con- tains more than 500,000 volumes, 13,000 MSS., rich collections of works on oriental languages, and valuable collections of periodical publications from scientific societies throughout the world. The museums of the Russian capital occupy a prominent place among those of Europe. That of the Academy of Sciences, of the Navy, of Industrial Art (1896), of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Arts, the Asiatic museum, the Suvorov museum (1901), with pictures by Vereshchagin, the Zoological museum and several others are of great scientific value. The Hermitage Art Gallery contains a first-rate collection of the Flemish school, some pictures of the Russian school, good specimens of the Italian, Spanish and old French schools, invaluable treasures of Greek and Scythian antiquities, and a good collection of 200,000 engravings. Old Christian and old Russian arts are well represented in the museums of the Academy of Arts. The New Michael Palace was in 1895-1898 40 converted into a museum of Russian art — the Russian museum; it is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. In the development of the Russian drama St Petersburg has played a far less important part than Moscow, and the stage there has never reached the same standard of excellence as that of the older capital. On the other hand, St Petersburg is the cradle of Russian opera and Russian music. There are in the city only four theatres of import- ance— all imperial — two for the opera and ballet, one for the native drama, and one for the French and German drama. • Industries and -Trade. — St Petersburg is much less of a manufactur- ing city than Moscow or Berlin. The period 1880 to 1890 was very critical in the history of the northern capital. With the develop- ment of the railway system the southern and south-western provinces of Russia began to prosper more rapidly than the upper Volga provinces; St Petersburg began to lose its relative importance in Favour of the Baltic ports of Riga and Libau, and its rapid growth since the Crimean War seemed in danger of being arrested. The danger, however, passed away, and in the last decade of the igth century the city continued its advance with renewed vigour. A great influx of functionaries of all sorts, consequent upon the state taking into its hands the administration of the railways, spirits, &c., resulted in the rapid growth of the population, while the introduction of a cheap railway tariff, and the subsidizing and encouraging in other ways of the great industries, attracted to St Petersburg a considerable number of workers, and favoured the growth of its larger industrial establishments. St Petersburg is now one of the foremost industrial provinces in Russia, its yearly returns placing it immediately after Moscow and before Piotrkow, in Poland. The chief factories are cottons and other textiles, metal and machinery works, tobacco, paper, soap and candle factories, breweries, dis- tilleries, sugar refineries, ship-building yards, printing works, potteries, carriage works, pastry and confectionery and chemicals. The export trade of St Petersburg is chiefly in gram (especially rye and oats), flour and bran, oil seeds, oil cakes, naphtha, eggs, flax and timber. It shows very great fluctuations, varying in accordance with the ciops, the range being from £8,000,000 to £10,000,000. The exports are almost entirely to western Europe by sea (from £5,500,000 to £6,500,o»>o), and to Finland (£1,500,000 to £3,000,000). The im- ports consul chiefly of coal, metals, building materials, herrings, coffee and tea, better-class timber, raw cotton, wood pulp and cellulose, am' manufactured goods, and amount to about £14,000,000 annually. Six railways meet at St Petersburg. Two run westwards along both shores o the Gulf of Finland to Hangoudd and to Port Baltic respectively; two short lines connect Oranienbaum, opposite Kronstadt and Tsarskoye Selo (with Pavlovsk) with the capital; and three great trunk lines run — south-west to Warsaw (with branches to Riga and Smolensk), south-east to Moscow (with branches to Novgorod and Rybinsk), aud east to Vologda, Vyatka and Perm. The Neva is the principal channel for the trade of St Petersburg with the rest of Russia, by means of the Volga and its tributaries. Administration. — The municipal affairs of the city are in the hands of a municipality, elected by three categories of electors, and is practically a department of the chief of the police. The city is under a separate governor-general, whose authority, like that of the chief of police, is unlimited. Environs. — St Petersburg is surrounded by several fine residences, mostly imperial palaces with large and beautiful parks. Tsarskoye Selo, 15 m. to the south-east, and Peterhof, on the Gulf of Finland, are summer residences of the emperor. Pavlovsk, 17 m. S. of the city, has a fine palace and parks, where summer concerts attract thousands of people. There is another imperial palace at Gatchina, 29 m. S. Oranienbaum, 25 m. W. on the south shore of the Gulf of Finland, is a rather neglected place. Pulkovo, on a hill 9 m. S. from St Petersburg, is well known for its observatory; while several villages north of the capital, such as Pargplovo and Murino, are visited in summer by the less wealthy inhabitants. History. — The region between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland was inhabited in the pth century by Finns and some Slavs. Novgorod and Pskov made efforts to secure and maintain dominion over this region, so important for their trade, and in the i3th and i4th centuries they built the forts of Koporya (in the present district of Peterhof), Yam (now Yamburg), and Oryeshek (now Schliisselburg) at the point where the Neva issues from Lake Ladoga. They found, however, powerful opponents in the Swedes, who erected the fort of Landskrona at the junction of the Okhta and the Neva, and in the Livonians, who had their fortress at Narva. Novgorod and Moscow successively were able by continuous fighting to maintain their supremacy over the region south of the Neva throughout the i6th century; but early in the iyth century Moscow was com- pelled to cede it to Sweden, which erected a fortress on the Neva at the mouth of the Okhta. In 1700 Peter the Great began his wars with Sweden. Oryeshek was taken in 1702, and in the SAINT-PIERRE, ABBE DE following year the Swedish fortress on the Neva. Two months later (291)1 June 1703) Peter laid the foundations of a cathedral to St Peter and St Paul, and of a fort which received his own name (in its Dutch transcription, " Piterburgh" ). Next year the fort of Kronslott was erected on the island of Kotlin, as also the Admiralty on the Neva, opposite the fortress. The emperor took most severe and almost barbarous measures for increasing his newly founded city, which was built on marshy ground, the buildings resting on piles. Thousands of people from all parts of Russia were removed thither and died in erecting the fortress and building the houses. Under Elizabeth fresh compulsory measures raised the population to 150,000, and this figure was nearly doubled during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796). The chief embellishments of St Petersburg were effected during the reigns of Alexander I. (1801-1825) and Nicholas I. (1825- 1855). From the earliest years of Russian history trade had taken this northern direction. Novgorod owed its wealth to this fact; and as far back as the i2th century the Russians had their forts on Lake Ladoga and the Neva. In the i4th and isth centuries they exchanged their wares with the Danzig merchants at Nu or Nil — now Vasilyevskiy Island. By founding St Petersburg Peter the Great only restored the trade to its old channels. The system of canals for connecting the upper Volga and the Dnieper with the great lakes of the north completed the work; the commercial mouth of the Volga was thus transferred to the Gulf of Finland, and St Petersburg became the export harbour for more than half Russia. Foreigners hastened thither to take possession of the growing export trade, and to this the Russian capital is indebted for its cosmopolitan character. The develop- ment of the railway system and the colonization of southern Russia now operate, however, adversely to St Petersburg, while the rapid increase of population in the Black Sea region is tending to shift the Russian centre of gravity; new centres of commercial, industrial, and intellectual life are being developed at Odessa and Rostov. The revival of Little Russia is another influence operating in the same direction. Since the abolition of serfdom and in consequence of the impulse given to Russian thought by this reform, the provinces are coming more and more to dispute the right of St Petersburg to guide the political life of the country. It has been often said that St Petersburg is the head of Russia and Moscow its heart. The first part at least of this saying is true. In the development of thought and in naturalizing in Russia the results of west European culture and philosophy St Petersburg has played a prominent part. It has helped greatly to familiarize the public with the teachings of west European science and thinking, and to give to Russian literature its liberality of mind and freedom from the trammels of tradition. St Petersburg has no traditions, no history beyond that of the palace conspiracies, and there is nothing in its past to attract the writer or the thinker. But, as new centres of intellectual life and new currents of thought develop again at Moscow and Kiev, or arise anew at Odessa and in the eastern provinces, these places claim the right to their own share in the further development of intellectual life in Russia. (P. A. K., J. T. BE.) SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IR^N^E CASTEL, (Anm'. I.K (1658-1743), French writer, was born at the chateau de Saint- Pierre-l'Eglise near Cherbourg on the i8th of February 1658. His father was bailli of the Cotentin, and Saint-Pierre was educated by the Jesuits. In Paris he frequented the salons of Madame de la Fayette and of the marquise de Lambert. He was presented to the abbacy of Tiron, and was elected to the Academy in 1695. In the same year he gained a footing at court as almoner to Madame. But in 1718, in consequence of the political offence given by his Discours sur la polysynodie, he was expelled from the Academy. He afterwards founded the club of the Entre sol, an independent society suppressed in 1731. He died in Paris on the 2gth of April 1743. Saint-Pierre's works are almost entirely occupied with an acute though generally visionary criticism of politics, law and social institutions. They had a great influence on Rousseau, who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and reproduced SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. B. DE— ST POL-DE-LEON not a few of their ideas in his own work. His Projel de paix perpetuelle, which was destined to exercise considerable influence on the development of the various schemes for securing universal peace which culminated in the Holy Alliance, was published in 1713 at Utrecht, where he was acting as secretary to the French plenipotentiary, the Abb6 de Polignac, and his Polysynodie contained severe strictures on the government of Louis XIV., with projects for the administration of France by a system of councils for each department of government. His works include a number of memorials and projects for stopping duelling, equalizing taxation, treating mendicancy, reforming education and spelling, &c. It was not, however, for his suggestions for the reform of the constitution that he was disgraced, but because in the Polysynodie he had refused to Louis XIV. the title of le Grand. Unlike the later reforming abbes of the philosophe period, Saint-Pierre was a man of very unworldly character and quite destitute of the Frondeur spirit. His works were published at Amsterdam in 1738-1740 and his Annales politiques in London in 1757. A discussion of his principles, with a view to securing a just estimation of the high value of his political and economic ideas, is given by S. Siegler Pascal in Un Contemporain egare au X VIII' siecle. Les Projets de I' abbe de Saint- Pierre, 1658-1743 (Paris, 1900). SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES HENRI BERNARDIN DE (1737- 1814), French man of letters, was born at Havre on the igth of January 1737. He was educated at Caen and at Rouen, and became an engineer. According to his own account he served in the army, taking part in the Hesse campaign of 1760, but was dismissed for insubordination, and, after quarrelling with his family, was in some difficulty. He appears at Malta,. St Petersburg, Warsaw, Dresden, Berlin, holding brief commissions as an engineer and rejoicing in romantic adventures. But he came back to Paris in 1765 poorer than he set out. He came into possession of a small sum at his father's death, and in 1 768 he set out for the Isle of France (Mauritius) with a government commission, and remained there three years, returning home in 1771. These wanderings supplied Bernardin with the whole of his stock-in-trade, for he never again quitted France. On his return from Mauritius he was introduced to D'Alembert and his friends, but he took no great pleasure in the company of any literary man except J. J. Rousseau, of whom in his last years he saw much, and on whom he formed both his character and his style. His Voyage a Vile de France, (2 vols., 1773) gained him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and in consequence, through the exertions of the bishop of Aix, a pension of 1000 livres a year. It is soberest and therefore the least characteristic of his books. The £tudes ince 1089 only because it was a united force in the midst ot disintegration. Gradually, however, Christian enthusiasm had aroused a counter enthusiasm among the Moslems. Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, had inaugurated the sacred war by his campaigns in Syria (1137-1146). Nur-ed-din, his son, had continued his work by further conquests in Syria and Damascus, by the organization of his conquered lands, and, in 1157, by " publishing everywhere the Holy War." The opportunity of Saladin lay therefore in the fact that his lifetime covers the period when there was a conscious demand for political union in the defence of the Mahommedan faith. By race Saladin was a Kurd of Armenia. His father, Ayyub (Job), and his uncle Shirkuh, sons of a certain Shadhy of Ajdanakan near Dawin, were both generals in Zengi's army. In 1139 Ayyub received Baalbek from Zengi, in 1146 he moved, on Zengi's death, to the court of Damascus. In 1154 his influence secured Damascus to Nur-ed-din and he was made governor. Saladin was therefore educated in the most famous centre of Moslem learning, and represented the best traditions of Moslem culture. His career falls into three parts, his conquests in Egypt 1164- 1174, the annexation of Syria 1174-1187, and lastly the destruc- tion of the Latin kingdom and subsequent campaigns against the Christians, 1187-1192. The conquest of Egypt was essential to Nur-ed-din. It was a menace to his empire on the south, the occasional ally of the Franks and the home of the unorthodox caliphs. His pretext was the plea of an exiled vizier, and Shirkuh was ordered to Egypt in 1164, taking Saladin as his lieutenant. The Christians under Count Amalric immediately intervened and the four expeditions which ensued in 1164, 1167, 1168 and 1169 were duels between Christians and Saracens. They resulted in heavy Christian losses, the death of Shirkuh and the appointment of Saladin as vizir. His relations towards the unorthodox caliph Nur-ed-din were marked by extraordinary tact. In 1171 on the death of the Fatimite caliph he was powerful enough to substitute the name of the orthodox caliph in all Egyptian mosques. The Mahommedan religion was thus united against Christianity. To Nur-ed-din he was invari- ably submissive, but from the vigour which he employed in adding to the fortifications of Cairo and the haste with which he retreated from an attack on Montreal (1171) and Kerak (1173) it is clear that he feared his lord's jealousy. In 1174 Nur-ed-din died, and the period of Saladin's conquests in Syria begins. Nur-ed-din's vassals rebelled against his youthful heir, es-Salih, and Saladin came north, nominally to his assistance. In 1174 he entered Damascus, Emesa and Hamah; in 1175 Baalbek and the towns round Aleppo. The next step was political independence. He suppressed the name of es-Salih in prayers and on the coinage, and was formally declared sultan by the caliph 1175. In 1176 he conquered Saif-ud-din of Mosul beyond the Euphrates and was recognized as sovereign by the princes of northern Syria. In 1177 he returned by Damascus to Cairo, which he enriched with colleges, a citadel and an aqueduct. From 1177 to 1180 he made war on the Christians from Egypt, and in 1180 reduced the sultan of Konia to sub- mission. From 1181-1183 he was chiefly occupied in Syria. ID 1183 he induced the atabeg Imad-ud-din to exchange Aleppo for the insignificant Sinjar and in 1186 received the homage of the atabeg of Mosul. The last independent vassal was thus subdued and the Latin kingdom enclosed on every side by a hostile empire. In 1187 a four years' truce was broken by the brilliant brigand Renaud de Chatillon and thus began Saladin's third period of conquest. In May he cut to pieces a small body of Templars and Hospitallers at Tiberias, and, on July 4th, inflicted a crushing defeat upon the united Christian army at Hittin. He then overran Palestine, on September 2oth besieged Jerusalem and on October 2nd, after chivalrous clemency to the Christian inhabitants, crowned his victories by entering and purifying the Holy City. In the kingdom only Tyre was left to the Christians. Probably Saladin made his worst strategical error in neglect- ing to conquer it before winter. The Christians, had thus a stronghold whence their remnant marched to attack Acre in June 1189. Saladin immediately surrounded the Christian army and thus began the famous two years' siege. Saladin's lack of a fleet enabled the Christians to receive reinforcements and thus recover from their defeats by land. On the 8th of June 1191 Richard of England arrived, and on the 1 2th of July Acre capitulated without Saladin's permission. Richard followed up his victory by an admirably ordered march down the coast to Jaffa and a great victory at Arsuf. During 1191 and 1192 there were four small campaigns in southern Palestine when Richard circled round Beitnuba and Ascalon with Jerusalem as objective. In January 1192 he acknowledged his impotence by renouncing Jerusalem to fortify Ascalon. Negotiations for peace accompanied these demonstrations, which showed that Saladin was master of the situation. Though in July Richard secured two brilliant victories at Jaffa, the treaty made on the 2nd of September was a triumph for Saladin. Only the coast line was left to the Latin kingdom, with a free passage to Jerusalem; and Ascalon was demolished. The union of the Mahommedan East had beyond question dealt the death-blow to the Latin kingdom. Richard returned to Europe, and Saladin returned to Damascus, where on the 4th of March 1193, ,SALAMANCA after a few days' illness, he died. He was buried in Damascus and mourned by the whole East. The character of Saladin and of his work is singularly vivid. In many ways he was a typical Mahommedan, fiercely hostile _towards unbelievers — " Let us purge the air of the air they breathe " was his aim for the demons of the Cross, — intensely devout and regular in prayers and fasting. He showed the pride of race in the declaration that " God reserved this triumph for the Ayyubites before all others." His generosity and Hospitality were proved in his gifts^to Richard and his treatment of captives. He had the Oriental's power of endurance, alternating with violent and emotional courage. Other virtues were all his own, his extreme gentleness, his love for children, his flawless honesty, his invariable kindliness, his chivalry to women and the weak. Above all he typifies the Mahommedan's utter self- surrender to a sacred cause. His achievements were the inevitable expression of his character. He was not a statesman, for he left no constitution or code to the East ; his empire was divided among his relatives on his death. As a strategist, though of great ability, he cannot be compared to Richard. As a general, he never organized an army. " My troops will do nothing," he confessed, " save when I ride at their head and review them. His fame lives in Eastern history as the conqueror who stemmed the tide of Western conquest on the East, and turned it definitely from East to West, as the hero who momentarily united the unruly East, and as the saint who realized in his personality the highest virtues and ideals of Mahommedanism. AUTHORITIES. — The contemporary Arabian authorities are to be found in Michaud's Recited des historiens des Croisades (Paris. 1876). This contains the work of Baha-ud-din (1145-1234), diplomatist, and secretary of Saladin, the general history of Ibn-Athir (1160- 1233), the eulogist of the atabegs of Mosul but the unwilling admirer of Saladin, and parts of the general history of Abulfeda. The biography of the poet Osema ibn Murkidh (1095-1188), edited by Derenbourg (Paris, 1886), gives an invaluable picture of Eastern life. Later Arabian authorities are Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and Abu- Shama (born 1267). Of Christian authorities the following are important, the history of William of Tyre (1137-1185), the Iliner- anum peregrinorum, probably the Latin version of the Carmen Ambrosii (ed. by Stubbs, " Rolls " series, London, 1864), and the Chronique d'outremer, or the French translation of William of Tyre's history and its continuation by Ernoul, the squire of Balian, seigneur of I be Jin, 1228. The best modern authority is Stanley Lane-Poole's Saladin (" Heroes of the Nations " series, London, 1903). See also the bibliography to CRUSADES. (W. F. K.) SALAMANCA, a frontier province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 out of the southern part of the ancient kingdom of Leon, and bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, E. by Avila, S. by Caceres and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 320,765; area, 4829 sq. m. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Duero (Portuguese Douro, P- 6l2)- Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride, British and United States pharmacopoeiae) as used in medicine is a white crystalline odourless powder having a saline taste. It is soluble in I in 3 of cold water and in I in 50 of 90% alcohol. It is incompatible with carbonates of the alkalis. The dose is 5 to 20 grs. Ammonium chloride has a different action and therapeutic use from the rest of the ammonium salts. It possesses only slight influence over the heart and respiration, but it has a specific effect on mucous membranes as the elimination of the drug takes place largely through the lungs, where it aids in loosening bronchial secretions. This action renders it of the utmost value in bronchitis and pneumonia with associated bronchitis. The drug may be given in a mixture with glycerine or liquorice to cover the disagreeable taste or it may be used in a spray by means of an atomizer. The inhalation of the fumes of nascent ammonium chloride by filling the room with the gas has been recommended in foetid bronchitis. Though ammonium chloride has certain irritant properties which may disorder the stomach, yet if its mucous mem- brane be depressed and atonic the drug may improve its condition, and it has been used with success in gastric and intestinal catarrhs of a subacute type and is given in doses of 10 grains half an hour before meals in painful dyspepsia due to hyperacidity. It is also an intestinal and hepatic stimulant and a feeble diuretic and dia- phoretic, and has been considered a specific in some forms of neuralgia. SALARIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which ran from Rome by Reate and Asculum to Castrum Truentinum (Porto d'Ascoli) on the Adriatic coast, a distance of 151 m. Its first portion must be of early origin, and was the route by which the Sabines came to fetch salt from the marshes at the mouth of the Tiber. Gi its course through the Apennines considerable remains exist. 6o SALAR JUNG, SIR— SALE, G. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 3-38; N. Persichetti, Viaggio archeologico sulla Via Solaria nel Circondario di Cittaducale (Rome, 1893); and in Romische Mitteilungen (1903), 276 seq. SALAR JUNG, SIR (1829-1883), Indian statesman of Hyderabad, born in 1829, descendant of a family which had held various appointments, first under the Adil Shahi kings of Bijapur, then under the Delhi emperors and lastly under the Nizams. While he was known to the British as Sir Salar Jung, his personal name was Mir Turab Ali, he was styled by native officials of Hyderabad the Mukhtaru '1-Mulk, and was referred to by the general public as the Nawab Sahib. He succeeded his uncle Suraju '1-Mulk as prime minister in 1853. The condition of the Hyderabad state was at that time a scandal to the rest of India. Salar Jung began by infusing a measure of discipline into the Arab mercenaries, the more valuable part of the Nizam's army, and employing them against the rapacious nobles and bands of robbers who had annihilated the trade of the country. He then constituted courts of justice at Hyderabad, organized the police force, constructed and repaired irrigation works, and established schools. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he supported the British, and although unable to hinder an attack on the residency, he warned the British minister that it was in comtemplation. The attack was repulsed; the Hyderabad contingent remained loyal, and their loyalty served to ensure the tranquillity of the Deccan. Salar Jung took advantage of the preoccupation of the British government with the Mutiny to push his reforms more boldly, and when the Calcutta authorities were again at liberty to consider the condition of affairs his work had been carried far towards completion. During the lifetime of the Nizam Afzulu'd-dowla, Salar Jung was considerably hampered by his master's jealous supervision. When Mir Mahbub Ali, however, succeeded his father in 1869, Salar Jung, at the instance of the British govern- ment, was associated in the regency with the principal noble of the state, the Shamsu '1-Umara or Amir Kabir, and enjoyed an increased authority. In 1876 he visited England with the object of obtaining the restoration of Berar. Although he was un- successful, his personal merits met with full recognition. He died of cholera at Hyderabad on the 8th of February 1883. He was created G. C.S.I, on the 28th of May 1870, and received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford on the zist of June 1876. His grandson enjoyed an estate of 1486 sq. m., yielding an income of nearly £60,000. See Memoirs of Sir Salar Jung, by his private secretary, Syed Hossain Bilgrami, 1883. SALARY, a payment for services rendered, usually a stipulated sum paid monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or yearly, and for a permanent or lengthy term of employment. It is generally contrasted with " wages," a term applied to weekly or daily payment for manual services. As laid down by Bowen, L. J., In re Shine (1892)) i Q.B. 529, " Salary means a definite payment for personal services under some contract and computed by time." The Latin solarium meant originally salt money (Lat. sal, salt), i.e. the sum paid to soldiers for salt. In post-Augustan Latin the word was applied to any allowance, pension or stipend. SALAS, or SAN MARTIN DE SALAS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the road from Tineo to Grado, and on a small sub-tributary of the river Narcea. Pop. (1900), 17,147. The official total of the inhabitants includes not only the actual residents in the town, but also the population of the district of Salas, a mountainous region in which coal-mining and agriculture are the principal industries. The products of this region are sent for export to Cudillero, a small harbour on the Bay of Biscay. SALAS BARBADILLO, ALONSO JER6NIMO DE (c. 1580- 1635), Spanish novelist and playwright, born at Madrid about 1580, and educated at Alcala de Henares and Valladolid. His first work, La Patrona de Madrid reslituida (1609), is a dull devout poem, which forms a strange prelude to La Hija de Celestina (1612), a malicious transcription of picaresque scenes reprinted under the title of La Ingeniosa Elena. This was followed by a series of similar tales and plays, the best of which are El Cavallero puntual (1614), La Casa de placer honesto (1620), Don Diego de Noche (1623) and a most sparkling satirical volume of character-sketches, El Curioso y Sabio Alexandra (1634). He died in poverty at Madrid on the zoth of July 1635. Some of his works were translated into English and French, and Scarron's Hypocrites is based on La Ingeniosa Elena; he deserved the vogue which he enjoyed till late in the I7th century, for his satirical humour, versatile invention and pointed style are an effective combination. SALDANHA BAY, an inlet on the south-western coast of South Africa, 63 m. by sea N. by W. of Cape Town, forming a land-locked harbour. The northern part of the inlet is known as Hoetjes Bay. It has accommodation for a large fleet with deep water close inshore, but the arid nature of the country caused it to be neglected by the early navigators, and with the growth of Cape Town Saldanha Bay was rarely visited. Considerable deposits of freestone in the neighbourhood attracted attention during the later igth century. Proposals were also made to create a port which could be supplied by water from the Berg river, 20 m. distant. From Kalabas Kraal on the Cape Town- Clanwilliam railway, a narrow gauge line runs via Hopefield to Hoetjes Bay — 126 m. from Cape Town. Saldanha Bay is so named after Antonio de Saldanha, captain of a vessel in Albuquerque's fleet which visited South Africa in 1503. The name was first given to Table Bay, where Saldanha's ship cast anchor. On Table Bay being given its present name (1601) the older appellation was transferred to the bay now called after Saldanha. In 1781 a British squadron under Commodore George Johnstone I73I~I?87) seized six Dutch East Indiamen, which, fearing an attack on Cape Town, had taken refuge in Saldanha Bay. This was the only achievement, so far as South Africa was concerned, of the expedition despatched to seize Cape Town during the war of 1781- 1783- SALDERN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH VON (1719-1785), Prussian soldier and military writer, entered the army in 1735, and (on account of his great stature) was transferred to the Guards in 1739. As one of Frederick's aides-de-camp he was the first to discover the approach of Neipperg's Austrians at Mollwitz. He commanded a guard battalion at Leuthen, again distinguished himself at Hochkirch and was promoted major- general. In 1760 at Liegnitz Frederick gave him four hours in which to collect, arrange and despatch the spoils of the battle, 6000 prisoners, 100 wagons, 82 guns and 5000 muskets. His complete success made him a marked man even in Frederick's army. At Torgau, Saldern and Mollendorf (q.v.) with their brigades converted a lost battle into a great victory by their desperate assault on the Siptitz Heights. The manoeuvring skill, as well as the iron resolution, of the attack, has excited the wonder of modern critics, and after Torgau Saldern was accounted the " completest general of infantry alive " (Carlyle). In the following winter, however, being ordered by Frederick to sack Hubertusburg, Saldern refused on the ground of conscience. Nothing was left for him but to retire, but Frederick was well aware that he needed Saldern's experience and organizing ability, and after the peace the general was at once made inspector of the troops at Magdeburg. In 1766 he became lieutenant- general. The remainder of his life was spent in the study of military sciences in which he became a pedant of the most pronounced type. In one of his works he discussed at great length the question between 76 and 75 paces to the minute as the proper cadence of infantry. There can be no question that " Saldern-tactics " were the most extreme form of pedantry to which troops were ever subjected, and contributed powerfully to the disaster of Jena in 1806. His works included Taklik der Infanlerie (Dresden, 1784) and Taklische Grundsdlze (Dresden, 1786), and were the basis of the British " Dundas " drill-book. See Ktister, Charakterzuge des Generalleutenants von Saldern (Berlin, 1792). SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736), English orientalist, was the son of a London merchant. In 1720 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple, but subsequently practised as a solicitor. Having studied Arabic for some time in England, he became, in 1726, one of the correctors of the Arabic version of the New Testament, begun in 1720 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and subsequently took the principal part in the SALE, SIR R. H.— SALEM 61 work. He made an extremely paraphrastic, but, for his time, admirable English translation of the Koran (1734 and often reprinted), and had a European reputation as an orientalist. He died on the i3th of November 1736. His collection of oriental manuscripts is now in the Bodleian library, Oxford. SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782-1845), British soldier, entered the 36th Foot in 1795, and went to India in 1798, as a lieutenant of the i2th Foot. His regiment formed part of Baird's brigade of Harris's army operating against Tippoo Sahib, and Sale was present at Mallavelly (Mallawalli) and Seringapatam, subsequently serving under Colonel Arthur Wellesley in the campaign against Dhundia. A little later the 1 2th was employed in the difficult and laborious attack on Paichi Raja. Promoted captain in 1806, Sale was engaged in 1808-1809 against the Raja of Travancore, and was at the two actions of Quilon, the storm of Travancore lines and the battle of Killianore. In 1810 he accompanied the expedition to Mauritius, and in 1813 obtained his majority. After some years he became major in the i3th, with which regiment he was for the rest of his life associated. In the Burmese War he led the i3th in all the actions up to the capture of Rangoon, in one of which he killed the enemy's leader in single combat. In the concluding operations of the war, being now lieutenant-colonel, he commanded a brigade, and at Malown (1826) he was severely wounded. For these services he received the C.B. In 1838, on the outbreak of the Afghan War, Brevet-Colonel Sale was assigned to the command of the ist Bengal brigade of the army assembling on the Indus. His column arrived at Kandahar in April 1839, and in May it occupied the Herat plain. The Kandahar force next set out on its march to Kabul, and a month later Ghazni was stormed, Sale in person leading the storming column and distinguishing himself in single combat. The place was well provisioned, and on its supplies the army finished its march to Kabul easily. For his services Sale was made K.C.B. and received the local rank of major-general, as well as the Shah's order of the Duranee Empire. He was left, as second-in-command, with the army of occupation, and in the interval between the two wars conducted several small campaigns ending with the action of Parwan which led directly to the surrender of Dost Mahommed. By this time the army had settled down to the quiet life of canton- ments, and Lady Sale and her daughter came to Kabul. But the policy of the Indian government in stopping the subsidy to the frontier tribes roused them into hostility, and Sale's brigade received orders to clear the line of communication to Peshawar. After severe fighting Sale entered Jalalabad on the I2th of November 1841. Ten days previously he had received news of the murder of Sir Alexander Burnes, along with orders to return with all speed to Kabul. These orders he, for various reasons, decided to ignore; suppressing his personal desire to return to protect his wife and family, he gave orders to push on, and on occupying Jalalabad at once set about making the old and half- ruined fortress fit to stand a siege. There followed a close and severe investment rather than a siege, and the garrison's sorties were made usually with the object of obtaining supplies. At last Pollock and the relieving army appeared, only to find that the garrison had on the 7th of April 1842 relieved itself by a brilliant and completely successful attack on Akbar's lines. Sir Robert Sale received the G.C.B.; a medal was struck for all ranks of defenders, and salutes fired at every large canton- ment in India. Pollock and Sale after a time took the offensive, and after the victory of Haft Kotal, Sale's division encamped at Kabul again. At the end of the war Sale received the thanks of parliament. In 1845, as quartermaster-general to Sir H. Cough's army, Sale again took the field. At Moodkee (Mudki) he was mortally wounded, and he died on the 2ist of December 1845. His wife, who shared with him the dangers and hardships of the Afghan war, was amongst Akbar's captives. Amongst the few possessions she was able to keep from Afghan plunderers was her diary (Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan, London, 1843)- See Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan (London, 1846)- Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers(London, 1867) ; W. Sale, Defence of Jellalabad (London, 1846) ; Regimental History of the I3th Light Infantry. SALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia, the principal centre in the agricultural Gippsland district, on the river Thomson, \i~]\ m. by rail E.S.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3462. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Gippsland, and contains the cathedral of the Roman Catholic bishop of Sale. Attached to its mechanics' institute are schools of mines, art and technology, and a fine free library. The finest buildings, excluding a number of handsome churches, are the Victoria Hall and the convent of Notre Dame de Sion. The Agricultural Society has excellent show grounds, in which meetings are annually held. Sale is the head of the Gippsland lakes naviga- tion, the shipping being brought from the lakes to the town by canal. Daily communication is maintained with Cunningham at the lakes' entrance, and ocean-going steamers ply frequently between Sale and Melbourne. SALE, an urban district in the Altrincham parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 5 m. S.W. of Manchester. Pop. (1901), 12,088. It is served by the Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham and the London & North-Western railways, and the Cheshire Lines, and has become a large residential suburb of Manchester. At the beginning of the igth century the greater part of the township was still waste and unenclosed. There are numerous handsome villas. Market gardening is carried on in the neighbourhood; and there are large botanical gardens. SALEM, a city and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. The city is on both banks of the river Tirumani- muttar, 3 m. from a station on the Madras railway, 206 m. S.W. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 70,621. There is a considerable weaving industry and some manufacture of cutlery. Its situa- tion in a green valley between the Shevaroy and Jarugumalai hills is picturesque. The DISTRICT OF SALEM has an area of 7530 sq. m. Except towards the south it is hilly, with extensive plains lying between the several ranges. It consists of three distinct tracts, formerly known as the Talaghat, the Baramahal and the Balaghat. The Talaghat is situated below the Eastern Ghats on the level of the Carnatic generally; the Baramahal includes the whole face of the Ghats and a wide piece of country at their base; and the Balaghat is situated above the Ghats on the tableland of Mysore. The western part of the district is mountainous. Amongst the chief ranges (5000-6000 ft.) are the Shevaroys, the Kalrayans, the Melagiris, the Kollimalais, the Pachamalais and the Yelagiris. The chief rivers are the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the Ponniar and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few miles of the north-western corner of the district. The forests are of considerable value. The geological structure of the district is mostly gneissic, with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dikes and granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill regions, and corundum and chromate of iron are also obtainable. The qualities of the soil differ very much ; in the country immediately surrounding the town of Salem a thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally prevails, through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many places. The climate, owing to the great difference of elevation, varies considerably ; on the hills it is cool and bracing, and for a great part of the year very salubrious; the annual rainfall averages about 32 in. The population in 1901 was 2,204,974, showing an increase of 12% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, rice, other food grains and oil-seeds, with a little cotton, indigo and tobacco. Coffee is grown on the Shevaroy hills. The chief irrigation work is the Barur tank system. Salem suffered severely from' the famine of 1877-1878. The Madras railway runs through the district, with two narrow-gauge branches. The chief industry is cotton-weaving, and there is some manufacture of steel from magnetic iron ore. There are many saltpetre refineries, but no large industries. The district was acquired partly by the treaty of peace with Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and partly by the partition treaty of Mysore in 1799. By the former the Talaghat and Baramahal were ceded, and by the latter the Balaghat or what is now the Hosur taluk. SALEM, a city and one of the county-seats (Lawrence is the other) of Essex county, Massachusetts, about 15 m. N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 35,956, of whom 10,902 were foreign-born (including 4003 French Canadians, 3476 Irish, and r 585 English SALEM Canadians), 23,038 were of foreign parentage (one or the other parent foreign-born) and 156 were negroes; (1910), 43,697. Area, 8-2 sq. m. Salem is served by the Boston & Maine and by interurban electric railways westward to Peabody, Danvers and Lawrence, eastward to Beverly, and southward to Marblehead, Swampscott, Lynn and Boston. It occupies a peninsula projecting toward the north-east, a small island (Winter Island) connected with the neck of the peninsula (Salem Neck) by a causeway, and some land on the mainland. Salem has many historical and literary landmarks. There are three court-houses, one of granite (1830-1841) with great monolithic Corinthian pillars, another (1862), adjoining it, of brick, and a third (1908-1909) of granite, for the probate court. The City Hall was built in 1837, and enlarged in 1876. The Custom House (1818-1819) is described in the introduction to Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, and in it Hawthorne worked as surveyor of the port in 1845-1849. The public library building (1888) was given to the city by the heirs of Captain John Bertram. The Essex Institute (1848) is housed in a brick building (1851) with freestone trimmings and in old Plummer Hall (1857); its museum contains some old furniture and a collection of portraits; it has an excellent library and publishes quarterly (1859 sqq.) Historical Collections. The Peabody Academy of Science, founded by the gift in 1867 of $140,000 from George Peabody and incorporated in 1868, is established in the East India Marine Hall (1824), bought for this purpose from the Salem East India Marine Society. The Marine Society was organized in 1799, its membership being limited to " persons who have actually navigated the seas beyond the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn, as masters or supercargoes of vessels belonging to Salem " ; it assists the widows and children of members. Its museum, like the ethnological and natural history collection of the Essex Institute, was bought by the Peabody Academy of Science, whose museum now includes Essex county collections (natural history, mineralogy, botany, prehistoric relics, &c.), type collections of minerals and fossils; implements, dress, &c. of primitive peoples, especially rich in objects from Malaysia, Japan and the South Seas ; and portraits and relics of famous Salem merchants, with models and pictures of Salem merchant vessels. The Salem Athenaeum (1810), the successor of a Social Library (1760) and a Philosophical Library (1781) is housed in Plummer Hall (1908), a building in the southern Colonial style, named in honour of a benefactor of the Athenaeum, Caroline Plummer (d. 1855), who endowed the Plummer Professorship of Christian Morals at Harvard. Some of the old houses were built by ship-owners before the Warof Independence, and more were built during the first years of the loth century when Salem privatetrsmen made so many fortunes. Many of the finest old houses are of the gambrel type ; and there are many beautiful doorways, doorheads and other details. Nathaniel Hawthorne's birthplace was built • before 1692; another house — now recon- structed and used as a social settlement — is pointed out as the original " house of seven gables." The Corwin or " Witch " house, so called from a tradition that Jonathan Corwin, one of the judges in the witchcraft trials, held preliminary examinations of witches here, is said to have been the property of Roger Williams. The Pickering house, built before 1660, was the homestead of Timothy Pickering and of other members of that family. Among the other buildings and institutions are Hamilton Hall (1805); the Franklin Building (1861) of the Salem Marine Society ; a large armoury ; a state normal school (1854); an orphan asylum (1870, under the Sisters of the Grey Nuns; the Association for the Relief of Aged and Destitute Women (1860), occupying a fine old brick house formerly the home of Benjamin W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a member of the national House of Representatives in 1824-1831 and Secretary of the Navy in 1814; the Bertram Home for Aged Men (1877) in a house built in 1806-1807; the Plummer Farm School for Boys (incorporated 1855, opened 1870), another charity of Caroline Plummer, on Winter Island; the City Almshouse (1816) and the City Insane Asylum (1884) on Salem Neck; a home for girls (1876); the Fraternity (1869), a club-house for boys; the Marine Society Bethel and the Salem Seamen's Bethel; the Seamen's Orphan and Children's Friend Society (1839); an Associated Chanties (1901), and the Salem Hospital (1873). Among the _ Church organizations are: the First (Unitarian; originally Trinitarian Congregational), which dates from 1629 and was the first Congregational church organized in America ; the Second or East Church (Unitarian) organized in 1718; the North Church (Unitarian), which separated from the First in 1772; the Third or Tabernacle (Congregational), organized in 1735 from the First Church; the South (Congregational), which separated from the Third in 1774; several Baptist churches; a Quaker society, with a brick meeting-house (1832); St Peter's, the oldest Episcopalian church in Salem, with a building of English Gothic erected in l8«. and Grace Church (1858). Washington Square or the Common (8 acres) is in the centre of the city. The Willows is a 3O-acre park on the Neck shore, and in North Salem is Liberty Hill, another park. On a bluff projecting into South river is the old " Burying Point," set apart in 1637, and the oldest cemetery in the city ; its oldest stone is dated 1673 ; here are buried Governor Simon Bradstreet, Chief-Justice Benjamin Lynde (1666-1745) and Judge John Hathorne (1641-1717) of the witch- craft court. The Broad Street Burial Ground was-laid out in 1655. On Salem Neck is Fort Lee and on Winter Island is Fort Pickering (on the site of a fort built in 1643), near which is the Winter Island Lighthouse. The main trade of Salem is along the coast, principally in the transhipment of coal; and the historic Crowninshield's or India wharf is now a great coal pocket. The harbour is not deep enough for ocean-going vessels, and manufacturing is the most important industry. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was $12,202,217 (13-9 % more than in 1900), and the principal manu- factures were boots and shoes and leather. The largest single establishment is the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company, which has 2800 looms and about 1500 mill-hands. Another large factory is that of the silversmiths, Daniel Low & Co. History. — Salem was settled in 1626 by Roger Conant (1593- 1679) and a company of " planters," who in 1624 (under the Sheffield patent of 1623 for a settlement on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay) had attempted a plantation at Cape Ann, whither John Lyford and others had previously come from Plymouth through " dissatisfaction with the extreme separation from the English church." Conant was not a separatist, and the Salem settlement was a commercial venture, partly agri- cultural and partly to provide a wintering place for Banks fishermen so that they might more quickly make their spring catch. Cape Ann was too bleak, but Naumkeag was a " pleasant and fruitful neck of land," which they named Salem in June 1629, probably in allusion to Psalm Ixxvi. 2. In 1628 a patent for the territory was granted by the New England Council to the Dorchester Company, in which the Rev. John White of Dor- chester, England, was conspicuous, and which in the same year sent out a small company under John Endecott as governor. Under the charter for the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (1629), which superseded the Dorchester Company patent, Endecott continued as governor until the arrival in 1630 of John Winthrop, who soon removed the seat of government from Salem first to Charlestown and then to Boston. In July or August 1629 the first Congregational Church (see CONGREGA- TIONALISM, § American) in America was organized here; its "teacher" in 1631 and 1633 and its pastor in 1634-1635 was Roger Williams, a close friend of Governor Endecott and always popular in Salem, who in 1635 fled thence to Rhode Island to escape arrest by the officials of Massachusetts Bay. In 1686, fearing that they might be dispossessed by a new charter, the people of Salem for £20 secured a deed from the Indians to the land they then held. Although not strictly Puritan the character of Salem was not essentially different from that of the other Massachusetts towns. The witchcraft delusion of 1692 centred about Salem Village, now in the township of Danvers, but then a part of Salem. Ten girls, aged nine to seventeen years, two of them house servants, met during the winter of 1691-1692 in the home of Samuel Parris, pastor of the Salem Village church, and after learning palmistry and various " magic " tricks from Parris's West Indian slave, Tituba, and influenced doubtless by current talk about witches, accused Tituba and two old women of bewitching them. The excitement spread rapidly, many more were accused, and, within four months, hundreds were arrested, and many were tried before commissioners of oyer and terminer (appointed on the 27th of May 1692, including Samuel Sewall, q.v., of Boston, and three inhabitants of Salem, one being Jonathan Corwin); nineteen were hanged,1 and one was pressed to death in September for refusing to plead when he was accused. All these trials were conducted in accordance with the English law of the time; there had been an execution for witchcraft at Charlestown in 1648; there was a case in Boston in 1655; in 1680 a woman of Newbury was condemned to death for witchcraft but was reprieved by Governor Simon Bradstreet ; in England and Scotland there were many executions long after the Salem delusion died out. The reaction came suddenly in Salem, and in May 1693 Governor William Phips ordered 1 There is nothing but tradition to identify the place of execution with what is now called Gallows Hill, between Salem and Peabody. SALEM— SALE OF GOODS the release from prison of all then held on the charge of witchcraft. Salem was an important port after 1670, especially in the India trade, and Salem privateers did great damage in the Seven Years' War, in the War of Independence (when 158 Salem privateers took 445 prizes), and in the War of 1812. On this foreign trade and these rich periods of privateering the prosperity of the place up to the middle of the ipth century was built. The First Provincial Assembly of Massachusetts met in Salem in 1774. On the 2oth of February 1775 at the North Bridge (between the present Salem and Danvers) the first armed resist- ance was offered to the royal troops, when Colonel Leslie with the 64th regiment, sent to find cannon hidden in the Salem " North Fields," was held in check by the townspeople. Salem was the birthplace of Nathaniel Hawthorne, W. H. Prescott, Nathaniel Bowditch, Jones Very and W. W. Story. Marblehead was separated from Salem township in 1049-, Beverly in 1668, a part of Middleton in- 11728, and the district of Danvers in 1752. Salem was chartered as a city in 1836. See Charles S. Osgood and Henry M. Batchelder, Historical Sketch of Salem, 1626-1879 (Salem, 1879); Joseph B. Felt, Annals of Salem (ibid., 1827; and ed., 2 vols., 1845-1849); Charles W. Upham, Salem Witchcraft (2 vols., Boston, 1867); H. B. Adams, Village Communities of Cape Ann and Salem (Baltimore, 1883); Eleanor Putnam (the pen-name of Mrs Arlo Bates), OldSalem (Boston, 1886); C. H. Webber and W. S. Nevins, Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877) ; R. D. Paine, Ships and Sailors of Old Salem (New York, 1909), and Visitor's Guide to Salem (Salem, 1902) published by the Essex Institute. SALEM, a city and the county-seat of Salem county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on Salem Creek, about 38 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900), 5811, of whom 263 were foreign-born and 809 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census), 6614. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railroad, and has steamer connexion with Philadelphia. Among its institutions is the John Tyler Library, established as Salem Library in 1804 and said to be the third oldest public library in the state. In Finn's Point National Cemetery, about 4 m. N. of Salem, there are buried some 2460 Confederate soldiers, who died during the Civil War while prisoners of war at Fort Delaware, on an island in Delaware river nearly opposite the mouth of Salem Creek. Salem lies in a rich agricultural region. Among the city's manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables, condiments, glass-ware, brass and iron-work, hosiery, linoleum and oil-cloth. Near the present site in 1643 colonists from Sweden built Fort Elfsborg; but the Swedish settlers in 1655 submitted to the Dutch at New Amsterdam, and the latter in turn surrendered to the English in 1664. In 1675 John Fenwicke, an English Quaker, entered the Delaware river and founded the first permanent English settlement on the Delaware (which he called Salem). After purchasing lands from the Indians, Fenwicke attempted to maintain an independent government, but in 1682 he submitted to the authority of the proprietors of West Jersey. During the War of Independence Salem was plundered on the i7th of March 1778 by British troops under Colonel Charles Mawhood, and on the following day a portion of these troops fought a sharp but indecisive engagement at Quinton's Bridge, 3 m. S. of the town, with American militia under Colonel Benjamin Holmes. Salem was incorporated as a town in 1695, and was chartered as a city in 1858. SALEM, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., 67 m. N.W. of Pittsburg and about the same distance S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 7582, including 667 foreign-born and 227 negroes; (1910) 8943. Salem is served by the Pennsylvania (the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago division) and the Youngstown & Ohio River railways, and by an interurban electric line to Canton. The city has a Carnegie library (1896), two beautiful cemeteries, a park, and a Home for Aged Women. It is situated in a fine agricultura'l region; coal is mined in the vicinity; natural gas is obtained in abundance; and the city has various manu- factures. It was settled by Friends in 1806, incorporated as a town in 1830 and as a village in 1852, and chartered as a city in 1887. For several years preceding the Civil War it was a station on the " underground railway " and the headquarters of " the Western Anti-Slavery Society," which published here the Anti- Slavery Bugle. SALEM, the capital of Oregon, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Marion county, on the east bank of the Willamette river, 52 m. S.S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1900), 4258, including 522 foreign- born; (1910) 14,094. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, by the Oregon Electric line (to Portland), and by a steamship line to Portland. The city is in the centre of the Willamette Valley, a rich farming and fruit-growing country. It has wide, well- shaded streets, and two public parks. Among thepublic buildings and institutions are the State Capitol, the State Library, a city public library, the county court-house, the Federal building, the state penitentiary and several charitable institutions. Salem is the seat of Willamette University (Methodist Episcopal, 1844), an outgrowth of the mission work of the Methodist Episcopal church begun in 1834 about 10 m. below the site of the present city; of the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic, 1860) and of two business colleges. Immediately north of the city at Chemawa is the Salem (non-reservation) government school for Indians, with an excellently equipped hospital. Water power is derived (in part, by an 18 m. canal) from the Santiam, an affluent of the Willamette river. The city is a market for the produce of the Willamette Valley. The settlement here, gathering about the Methodist mission and 'school, began to grow in the decade 1840-1850. Salem was chartered as a city in 1853, and in 1860 was made the capital of the state. It grew rapidly after 1900, and its territory was increased in 1903. SALEM, a town and the county-seat (since 1838) of Roanoke county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Roanoke river, about 60 m. W. by S. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900), 3412, including 798 negroes; (1910) 3849. It is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Virginian railways, and has electric railway connexion with Roanoke, about 6 m. E. The town is a summer resort about 1000 ft. above the sea, surrounded by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge mountains. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in the vicinity. Salem is the seat of a Lutheran Orphan Home (1888), of the Baptist Orphanage of Virginia (1892) and of Roanoke College (co-educational; Lutheran; chartered, 1853). The town is in a dairying, agricultural and fruit-growing region. The Roanoke river provides water-power. The water supply is obtained from a spring within the town limits, from which there flows about 576,000 gallons a day, and from an artesian well. This part of Roanoke county was granted in 1767 to General Andrew Lewis, to whom there is a monument in East Hill Cemetery, where he is buried. Salem, laid out in 1802, was incorporated as a town in 1813. SALE OF GOODS. Sale (O.Eng. sola, sellan, syllan, to hand over, deliver) is commonly defined as the transfer of property from one person to another for a price. This definition requires some consideration in order to appreciate its full scope., The law of sale is usually treated as a branch of the law of contract, because sale is effected by contract. Thus Pothier entitles his classical treatise on the subject, Traite du central de venle, and the Indian Contract Act (ix. of 1872) devotes a chapter to the sale of goods. But a completed contract of sale is something more. It is a contract plus a transfer of property. An agreement to sell or buy a thing, or, as lawyers call it, an executory contract of sale, is a contract pure and simple. A purely personal bond arises thereby between seller and buyer. But a complete or executed contract of sale effects a transfer of ownership with all the advantages and risks incident thereto. By an agreement to sell a, jus in personam is created; by a sale a. jus in rem is trans- ferred. The essence of sale is the transfer of property for a price. If there be no agreement for a price, express or implied, the transaction is gift, not sale, and is regulated by its own peculiar rules and considerations. So, too, if commodity be exchanged for commodity, the transaction is called barter and not sale, and the rules relating to sales do not apply in their entirety. Again, a contract of sale must comtemplate an absolute transfer of the property in the thing sold or agreed to be sold. A mortgage may be in the form of a conditional sale, but English law regards the SALE OF GOODS substance and not the form of the transaction. If in substance the object of the transaction is to secure the repayment of a debt, and not to transfer the absolute property in the thing sold, the law at once annexes to the transaction the complex consequences which attach to a mortgage. So, too, it is not always easy to distinguish a contract for the sale of an article from a contract for the supply of work and materials. If a man orders a set of false teeth from a dentist the contract is one of sale, but if he employs a dentist to stop one of his teeth with gold the contract is for the supply of work and materials. The distinction is of practical importance, because very different rules of law apply to the two classes of contract. The property which may be the subject of sale may be either movable or immovable, tangible or intangible. The present article relates only to the sale of goods — that is to say, tangible movable property. By the laws of all nations the alienation of land or real property is, on grounds of public policy, subject to special regulations. It is obvious that the assignment of " things in action," such as debts, contracts and negotiable instruments, must be governed by very different principles from those which regulate the transfer of goods, when the object sold can be transferred into the physical possession of the transferee. In 1847, when Mr Justice Story wrote his work on the sale of personal property, the law of sale was still in process of development. _ Cod Many rules were still unsettled, especially the rules re- offssj lating to implied conditions and warranties. But for several years the main principles have been well settled. In 1891 the subject seemed ripe for codification, and Lord Herschell introduced a codifying bill which two years later passed into law as the Sale of Goods Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 71). Sale is a consen- sual contract. The parties to the contract may supplement it with any stipulations or conditions they may see fit to agree to. The code in no wise seeks to fetter this discretion. It lays down a few positive rules — such, for instance, as that which reproduces the 1 7th section of the Statute of Frauds. But the main object of the act is to provide clear rules for those cases where the parties have either formed no intention or have failed to express it. When parties enter into a contract they contemplate its smooth performance, and they seldom provide for contingencies which may interrupt that performance — such as the insolvency of the buyer or the destruction of the thing sold before it is delivered. It is the province of the code to provide for these contingencies, leaving the parties free to modify by express stipulation the provisions imported by law. When the code was in contemplation the case of Scotland gave rise to difficulty. Scottish law varies widely from English. To speak broadly, the Scottish law of sale differs from the English by adhering to the rules of Roman law, while the English common law has worked out rules of its own. Where two countries are so closely connected in business as Scotland and England, it is obviously inconvenient that their laws relating to commercial matters should differ. The Mercantile Law Commission of 1855 reported on this question, and recommended that on certain points the Scottish rule should be adopted in England, while on other points the English rule should be adopted in Scotland. The recommendations of the Commission were partially and rather capriciously adopted in the English and Scottish Mercantile Law Amendment Acts of 1856. Certain rules were enacted for England which resembled but did not really reproduce the Scottish law, while other rules were enacted for Scotland which resembled but did not really reproduce the English law. There the matter rested for many years. The Codifying Bill of 1891 applied only to England, but on the advice of Lord Watson it was extended to Scotland. As the English and Irish laws of sale were the same, the case of Ireland gave rise to no difficulty, and the act now applies to the whole of the United Kingdom. As regards England and Ireland very little change in the law has been effected. As regards Scotland the process of assimilation has been carried further, but has not been completed. In a few cases the Scottish rule has been saved or re- enacted, in a few other cases it has been modified, while on other points, where the laws were dissimilar, the English rules have been adopted. Now that the law has been codified, an analysis of the law resolves itself into an epitome of the main provisions of the statute. The act is divided into six parts, the first dealing with the formation of the contract, the second with the effects of the contract, the third with the performance of the contract, the fourth with the rights of an unpaid seller against the goods, and the fifth with remedies for breach of contract, the sixth part is supplemental. The 1st section, which may be regarded as the keystone of the act, is in the following terms: " A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a money consideration called the price. A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. When under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer the contract is called a ' sale,' but when the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled the contract is called an ' agree- ment to sell." An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred." This section clearly enunciates the consensual nature of the contract, and this is confirmed by section 55, which provides that " where any right, duty or liability would arise under a contract of sale by implication of law," it may be negatived or varied by express agreement, or by the course of dealing between the parties, or by usage, if the usage be such as to bind both parties to the contract. The next question is who can sell and buy. The act is framed on the plan that if the law of contract were codified, this act would form a chapter in the code. The question of capacity is therefore referred to the general law, but a special provision is inserted (section 2) relating to the supply of necessaries to infants and other persons who are incompetent to contract. Though an infant cannot contract he must live, and he can only get goods by paying for them. The law, therefore, provides that he is liable to pay a reasonable price for necessaries supplied to him, and it defines necessaries as " goods suitable to the condition in life of such minor or other person, and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and delivery." The 4th section of the act reproduces the famous 1 7th section of the Statute of Frauds, which was an act " for the prevention of frauds and perjuries." The object of that statute was to prevent people from setting up bogus contracts of sale by requiring material evidence of the contract. The section provides that " a contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or unless some note or memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be charged, or his agent in that behalf." It is a much disputed question whether this enactment has done more good or harm. It has defeated many an honest claim, though it may have prevented many a dishonest one from being put forward. When judges and juries have been satisfied of the bona fides of a contract which does not appear to satisfy the statute, they have done their best to get round it. Every expression in the section has been the subject of numerous judicial decisions, which ran into almost impossible refinements, and illustrate the maxim that hard cases make bad law. It is to be noted that Scotland is excluded from the operation of section 4. The Statute of Frauds has never been applied to Scotland, and Scotsmen appear never to have felt the want of it. As regards the subject-matter of the contract, the act provides that it may consist either of existing goods or " future goods " — that is to say, goods to be manufactured or acquired by the seller after the making of the contract (§ 5). Suppose that a man goes into a gunsmith's shop and says, " This gun suits me, and if you will make or get me another like it I will buy the pair." This is a good contract, and no question as to its validity would be likely to occur to the lay mind. But lawyers have seriously raised the question, whether there could be a valid contract of sale when the subject-matter of the contract was not in existence at the time when the contract was made. The price is an essential element in a contract of sale. It may be either fixed by the contract itself, or left to be determined in some manner thereby agreed upon, e.g. by the award of a third party. But there are many cases in which the parties intend to effect a sale, and yet say nothing about the price. Suppose that a man goes into a hotel and orders dinner without asking the price. How is it to be fixed? The law steps in and says that, in the absence of any agree- ment, a reasonable price must be paid (§ 8). This prevents ex- tortion on the part of the seller, and unreasonableness or fraud on the part of the buyer. The next question dealt with is the difficult one of conditions and warranties (§§ loand II). The parties may insert what stipulations they like in a contract of sale, but the law has to interpret w them. The term" warranty "has a peculiar and technical meaning in the law of sale. It denotes a stipulation which the law regards as collateral to the main purpose of the contract. A breach, therefore, does not entitle the buyer to reject the goods, but only to claim damages. Suppose that a man buys a particular horse, which is warranted quiet to ride and drive. If the horse turns out to be vicious, the buyer's only remedy is to claim damages, unless he has expressly reserved a right to return it. But if, instead of buying a particular horse, a man applies to a dealer to supply him with a quiet horse, and the dealer supplies him with a vicious one, the stipulation is a condition. The buyer can either return the horse, or keep it and claim damages. Of course the right of rejection must be exercised within a reasonable time. In Scotland no distinction has been drawn between conditions and warranties, and the act preserves the Scottish rule by providing that, in Scotland, " failure by the seller to perform any material part of a contract of sale " entitles the buyer either to reject the goods within a reasonable time after delivery, or to retain them and claim compensation (§ II (2)). In England it is a very common trick for the buyer to keep the goods, and then set up in reduction of the price that they are of inferior quality to what was ordered. To discourage this practice in Scotland the act provides that, in that country, the court may require the buyer who alleges a breach of contract to bring the agreed price into court SALE OF GOODS pending the decision of the case (| 59). It seems a pity that this sensible rule was not extended to England. In early English law caveat emptor was the general rule, and it was one well suited to primitive times. Men either bought their goods in the open market-place, or from their neighbours, and buyer and seller contracted on a footing of equality. Now the complexity of modern commerce, the division of labour and the increase of technical skill, have altogether altered the state of affairs. The buyer is more and more driven to rely on the honesty, skill and judgment of the seller or manufacturer. Modern law has recognized this, and protects the buyer by implying various conditions and warranties in contracts of sale, which may be summarized as follows: First, there is an implied undertaking on the part of the seller that he has a right to sell the goods (§ 12). Secondly, if goods be ordered by description, they must correspond with that description (§ 13). This, of course, is a universal rule — Si aes pro auro veneat, non valet. Thirdly, there is the case of manufacturers or sellers who deal in particular classes of goods. They naturally have better means of judging of their merchandise than the outside public, and the buyer is entitled within limits to rely on their skill or judgment. A tea merchant or grocer knows more about tea than his customers can, and so does a gun- smith about guns. In such cases, if the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required, there is an implied condition that the goods are reasonably fit for it, and if no particular purpose be indicated there is an implied condition that the goods supplied are of merchantable quality (S) 14). Fourthly, in the case of a sale by sample, there is " an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality," and that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the sample (§15)- The main object of sale is the transfer of ownership from seller to buyer, and it is often both a difficult and an important matter to determine the precise moment at which the change of ownership is effected. According to Roman law, which is still the foundation of most European systems, the property in a thing sold did not pass until delivery to the buyer. Traditionibus et usucapionibus dominia rerum, non nudis pactis, transferuntut . English law has abandoned this test, and has adopted the principle that the property passes at such time as the parties intend it to pass. Express stipulations as to the time when the property is to pass are very rare. • The intention of the parties has to be gathered from their conduct. A long train of judicial decisions has worked out a more or less artificial series of rules for determining the presumed intention of the parties, and these rules are embodied in sections 16 to 20 of the act. The first rule is a negative one. In the case of unascertained goods, i.e. goods defined by description only, and not specifically identified, " no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer unless and until the goods are ascertained." If a man orders ten tons of scraf) iron from a dealer, it is obvious that the dealer can fulfil his contract by delivering any ten tons of scrap that he may select, and that until the ten tons have been set apart, no question of change of ownership can arise. But when a specific article is bought, or when goods ordered by description are appropriated to the contract, the passing of the property is a question of intention. De- livery to the buyer is strong evidence of intention to change the ownership, but it is not conclusive. Goods may be delivered to the buyer on approval, or for sale or return. Delivery to a carrier for the buyer operates in the main as a delivery to the buyer, but the seller may deliver to the carrier, and yet reserve to himself a right of disposal. On the other hand, when there is a sale of a specific article, which is in a fit state for delivery, the property in the article prima facie passes at once, even though delivery be delayed. When the contract is for the sale of unascertained goods, which are ordered by description, the property in the goods passes to the buyer, when, with the express or implied consent of the parties, goods of the required description are " unconditionally appropriated to the contract." The cases which determine what amounts to an appro- priation of goods to the contract are numerous and complicated. Probably they could all be explained as cases of constructive delivery, but at the time when the law of appropriation was worked out the doctrine of constructive delivery was not known. It is perhaps to be regretted that the codifying act did not adopt the test of delivery, but it was thought better to adhere to the familiar phraseology of the cases. Section 20 deals with the transfer of risk from seller to buyer, and lays down the prima facie rule that " the goods remain at the seller's risk until the property therein is transferred to the buyer, but when the property therein is transferred to the buyer, the goods are at the buyer's risk whether delivery has been made or not." Res peril domino is therefore the maxim of English, as well as of Roman law. In the vast majority of cases people only sell what they have a right to sell, but the law has to make provision for cases where a man Tla sells goods which he is not entitled to sell. An agent may misconceive or exceed his authority. Stolen goods may be passed from buyer to buyer. Then comes the question, Which of two innocent parties is to suffer? Is the original owner to be permanently deprived of his property, or is the loss to fall on the innocent purchaser? Roman law threw the loss on the buyer, Nemo plus juris in alium transferre potest quam ipse habet. French law, m deference to modern commerce, protects the innocent purchaser XXIV. 3 and throws the loss on the original owner. " En fait de meubles, possession vaut titre " (Code civil, ait. 1599). English law is a compromise between these opposing theories. It adopts the Roman rule as its guiding principle, but qualifies it with certain more or less arbitrary exceptions, which cover perhaps the majority of the actual cases which occur (§§ 21 to 26). In the first place, the pro- visions of the Factors Act, 1889 (52 and 53 Viet. c. 45, extended to Scotland by 53 and 54 Viet. c. 40), are preserved. That act validates sales and other dispositions of goods by mercantile agent acting within the apparent scope of their authority, and also protects innocent purchasers who obtain goods from sellers left in possession, or from intending buyers who have got possession of the goods while negotiations are pending. In most cases a contract induced by fraud is voidable only, and not void, and the act provides, accordingly, that a voidable contract of sale shall be avoided to the prejudice of an innocent purchaser. The ancient privilege of market overt1 is preserved intact, section 22 providing that " where goods are sold in market overt, according to the usage of th-> market, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods provided he buys them in good faith, and without notice of any defect or want of title on the part of the seller." The section does not apply to Scotland, nor to the law relating to the sale of horses which is contained in two old statutes, 2 & 3 Phil, and Mar. c. 7, and 31 Eliz. c. 12. The minute regulations of those statutes are never complied with, so their practical effect is to take horses out of the category of things which can be sold in market overt. The privilege of market overt applies only to markets by prescription, and does not attach to newly- created markets. The operation of the custom is therefore fitful and capricious. For example, every shop in the City of London is within the custom, but the custom does not extend to the greater London outside. If then a man buys a stolen watch in Fleet Street, he may get a good title to it, but he cannot do so if he buys it a few doors off in the Strand. There is, however, a qualification of the rights acquired by purchase even in market overt. When goods have been stolen and the thief is prosecuted to conviction, the property in the goods thereupon revests in the original owner, and he is entitled to get them back either by a summary order of the convicting court or by action. This rule dates back to the statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. II. It was probably intended rather to encourage prosecutions in the interests of public justice than to protect people whose goods were stolen. Having dealt with the effects of sale, first, as between seller and buyer, and, secondly, as between the buyer and third parties, the act proceeds to determine what, in the absence of „..*. convention, are the reciprocal rights and duties of the parties in the performance of their contract (§§ 27 to 37). aace- It is the duty of the seller to deliver the goods and of the buyer to accept and pay for them in accordance with the terms of the contract of sale " (§ 27). In ordinary cases the seller's duty to deliver the goods is satisfied if he puts them at the disposal of the buyer at the place of sale. The normal contract of sale is represented by a cash sale in a shop. The buyer pays the price and takes away the goods: " Unless otherwise agreed, delivery of the goods and payment of the price are concurrent conditions " (§27). But agreement, express or implied, may create infinite variations on the normal contract. It is to be noted that when goods are sent to the buyer which he is entitled to reject, and does reject, he is not bound to send them back to the seller. It is sufficient if he intimate to the seller his refusal to accept them (§ 36). The normal theory of sale is cash against delivery, but in the great majority of actual cases, especially in commercial transactions, this theory is departed from in practice. The interests of the seller are therefore protected by two rules — namely, * ightsof those as to lien and as to stoppage in transitu. In the c°«a absence of any different agreement, as, for instance, where there is a stipulation for sale on credit, the unpaid seller has a right to retain possession of the goods until the price is paid or tendered. The right may, of course, be waived, even when it is not negatived by the contract. It is to be noted that when the seller takes a bill of exchange or other negotiable instrument for the price, the instru- ment operates as conditional payment. On the dishonour of the instrument the seller's rights revive (§§ 38-43). If the buyer becomes insolvent the unpaid seller has a further right founded on ancient mercantile usage. He may have parted with both the property in and possession of the goods sold, but he can attach the goods as long as they are in the hands of a carrier or forwarding agent, and have not reached the actual possession of the seller or his immediate agent. " Subject to the provisions of this Act, when the buyer of goods becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller who has parted with the possession of the goods has the right of stopping them in transitu — that is to say, he may resume possession of the goods as long as they are in course of transit, and may retain them until payment or tender of the price " (§ 44). The right of stoppage, however, cannot be exercised to the prejudice of third parties to whom the bill of lading or other document of title to goods has been lawfully trans- ferred for value (§ 47). The ultimate sanction of a contract is the legal remedy for its 1 That is, " open market," where the goods on sale are exposed to view. 66 SALEP— SALESBURY breach. Seller and buyer have each their appropriate remedies. If the property in the goods has passed to the buyer, or if, under the contract, " the price is payable on a day certain irrespec- f<"" tive of delivery, the seller's remedy for breach of the con- and"seUer tract 's an act'on f°r tne price (§ 49). In other cases his ' remedy is an action for damages for non-acceptance. In the case of ordinary goods of commerce the measure of damages is the difference between the contract price and the market or current price at the time when the goods ought to have been accepted. But this test is. often applicable. For instance, the buyer may have ordered some article of special manufacture for which there would be no market. The convenient market-price rule is therefore sub- ordinate to the general principle that " the measure of damages is the estimated loss directly and naturally resulting in the ordinary course of events from the buyer's breach of contract " (§ 56). Similar considerations apply to the buyer's right of action for non-delivery of the goods (§ 51). Section 52 deals with a peculiar feature of English law. In Scotland, as a general rule, a party who complains of a breach of contract is entitled to claim that the contract shall be specifically performed. In England a court of common law could only award damages, and apart from certain recent statutes, a claim for specific performance could only be entertained by a court of equity in a very narrow class of cases when the remedy by damages wasdeemed inadequate. But now, underthe act of 1893, " in any action for breach of contract to deliver specific or ascertained goods the court may, if it thinks fit, direct that the contract shall be per- formed specifically without giving the defendant the option of re- taining the goods on payment of damages." The buyer who com- plains of a breach of warranty on the part of the seller has two remedies. He may either set up the breach of warranty in reduction of the price, or he may pay the price and sue for damages. The prima facie measure of damages is the difference between the value of the goods at th^ time of delivery and the value they would have had if they had answered to the warranty (§ 53). The sixth part of the act is supplemental, and is mainly con- cerned with drafting explanations, but section 58 contains some rules for regulating sales by auction. It prohibits secret bidding on behalf of the seller to enhance the price, but is silent as to combina- tion by buyers to reduce the price. Such a combination, commonly known as a " knock out," is left to be dealt with by the ordinary law of conspiracy. The Sale of Goods Act 1893 was the third attempt made by the English parliament to codify a branch of commercial law. It would be out of place here to discuss the policy of mercantile codification, but it may be noted that there are very few reported cases on the construction of the act, so that its interpretation does not seem to have given rise to difficulty. As has been noted above, the act preserves some curious anomalies and distinctions between English and Scottish law. But the amendments re- quired to remove them would be few and simple, should the legislature ever think it worth while to undertake the task. United States. — The law as to the sale of real estate agrees gener- ally with English law. It is considerably simplified by a system of registration. The covenant of warranty, unknown in England, is the principal covenant for title in the United States. It corresponds generally to the English covenant for quiet enjoyment. The right of judicial sale of buildings under a mechanic's lien for labour and materials is given by the law of many states. The sale of public lands is regulated by Act of Congress. In the law of sale of personal property American law is also based upon English law. The principal differences are that the law of market overt is not recognized by the United States, and that an unpaid vendor is the agent of the vendee to resell on non-payment, and is entitled to recover the difference between the contract price and the price of resale. Warranty of title is not carried as far as in England. United States decisions draw a distinction between goods in the possession and goods not in the possession of the vendor at the time of 'sale. There is no warranty of title of the latter. The Statute of Frauds has been construed in some respects differently from the English decisions. As to unlawful sales, it has been held that a sale in a state where the sale is lawful is valid in a state where it is un-lawful by statute, even though the goods are in the latter state. The ordinary text-books on the law of sale are constantly re-edited and brought up to date. The following among the others may be consulted: Benjamin's Sale of Personal Property; Blackburn's Contract of Sale; Campbell's Law of Sale and Mercantile Agency; Brown's Sale of Goods Act (Scotland); Chalmers's Sale of Goods Act; Moyle's Contract of Sale in the Civil Law; E. J. Schuster s Principles of German Civil Law; Beddarride's Des achats et ventes commer- cials; Story's Sale of Personal Property (United States). (M. D. CH.) SALEP (Arab, sahleb, Gr. Spx«)> a drug extensively used in oriental countries as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections. It probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the " doctrine of signatures." It is not used in European medicine. It consists of the tuberous roots of various species of Orchis and Ettlophia, which are decorti- cated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then dried. Its most important constituent is a mucilaginous substance which it yields with cold water to the extent of 48%. SALERNO (anc. Salernum), a seaport and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Salerno, on the west coast, 33 m. by rail S.E. of Naples. Pop. (1901), 28,936 (town); 45,313 (commune). The ruins of its old Norman castle stand on an eminence 905 ft. above the sea with a back- ground of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed in the beginning of the i9th century; the seaward portion has given place to the Corso Garibaldi, the principal promenade. The chief buildings are the theatre, the prefecture, and the cathedral of St Matthew (whose bones were brought from Paestum to Salerno in 954), begun in 1076 by Robert Guiscard and consecrated in 1084 by Gregory VII. In front is a beautiful quadrangular court (112 by 102 ft.), surrounded by arcades formed of twenty-eight ancient pillars mostly of granite from Paestum, and containing twelve sarcophagi of various periods; the middle entrance into the church is closed by remarkable bronze doors of nth-century Byzantine work. The nave and two aisles end in apses. Two magnificent marble ambones, the larger dating from 1175, a large nth-century altar frontal in the south aisle, having scenes from the Bible carved on thirty ivory tablets, with 13th-century mosaics in the apse, given by Giovanni da Procida, the promoter of the Sicilian Vespers, and the tomb of Pope Gregory VII., and that of Queen Margaret of Durazzo, mother of King Ladislaus, erected in 1412, deserve to be mentioned. In the crypt is a bronze statue of St Matthew. The cathedral possesses a fine Exultet roll. S. Domenico near it has Norman cloisters, and several of the other churches contain paintings by Andrea Sabbatini da Salerno, one of the best of Raphael's scholars. A fine port constructed by Giovanni da Procida in 1260 was destroyed when Naples became the capital of the kingdom, and remained blocked with sand till after the unification of Italy, when it was cleared; but it is now unimportant. The chief industries are silk and cotton-spinning and printing. Good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. A branch railway runs'N. up the Irno valley to Mercato S. Severino on the line from Naples to Avellino. A Roman colony (Salernum) was founded in 194 B.C. to keep the Picentini in check. It was captured by the Samnites in the Social War. It was the point at which the coast road to Paestum diverged from the Via Popillia, rejoining it again E. of Buxentum. In the 4th century the correctores of Lucania and the territory of the Bruttii resided here, but it did not attain its full importance till after the Lombard conquest. Dismantled by order of Charlemagne, it became in the gth century the capital of an independent principality, the rival of that of Benevento, and was surrounded by strong fortifica- tions. The Lombard princes, who had frequently defended their city against the Saracens, succumbed before Robert Guiscard, who took the castle after an eight months' siege and made Salerno the capital of his new territory. The removal of the court to Palermo and the sack of the city by the emperor Henry VI. in 1194 put a stop to its development. The medical school of the Civitas Hippo- cratica (as it called itself on its seals) held a high position in medieval times. Salerno university, founded in 1 150, and long one of the great seats of learning in Italy, was closed in 1817. See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale (Naples, 1902), i. 371 sqq- (T. As.) SALERS, a village of central France, in the department of Cantal, 30 m. N. of Aurillac by road. Pop. (1906), 659. Salers dates from the gth or loth century and its lords were already powerful in the nth century. It is finely situated on a plateau overlooking the valley of the Maronne. It is a quaint old town with a church of the i3th and isth centuries, remains of its ancient ramparts and many houses of the isth and i6th centuries. Salers has given its name to a celebrated breed of red cattle raised in the district. SALESBURY (or SALISBURY), WILLIAM (c. i^o-c. 1600), Welsh scholar, was a native of Denbighshire, being the son of Foulke Salesbury, who belonged to a family said to be descended from a certain Adam of Salzburg, a member of the ducal house of Bavaria, who came to England in the I2th century. Salesbury was educated at Oxford, where he accepted the Protestant SALEYER— SALFORD 67 faith, but he passed most of his life at Llanrwst, working at his literary undertakings. The greatest Welsh scholar of his time, Salesbury was acquainted with nine languages, including Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and was learned in philology and botany. He died about 1600. About 1546 he edited a collection of Welsh proverbs (Oil synwyr pen kembero), probably the first book printed in Welsh, and in 1547 his Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe was published (facsimile edition, 1877). In 1563 the English parliament ordered the Welsh bishops to arrange for the translation of the Scriptures and the book of common prayer into Welsh. The New Testament was assigned to Sales- bury, who had previously translated parts of it. He received valu- able assistance from Richard Davies, bishop of St Davids, and also from Thomas Huet, or Hewett (d. 1591), but he himself did the greater part of the work. The translation was made from the Greek, but Latin versions were consulted, and in October 1567 the New Testament was published for the first time in Welsh. This translation never became very popular, but it served as the basis for the new one made by Bishop William Morgan (c. 1547- 1604). Salesbury and Davies continued to work together, translat- ing various writings into Welsh, until about 1576 when the literary partnership was broken. After this event, Salesbury, although continuing his studies, produced nothing of importance. Other noteworthy members of the family (the modern spelling is Salusbury) are: JOHN SALESBURY (c. 1500-1573), who held many preferments under the Tudor sovereigns and was bishop of Sodor and Ma.i from 1571 to 1573; THOMAS SALESBURY (c. 1555-1586), an associate of Anthony Babington, who was executed for conspiring against Queen Elizabeth; HENRY SALESBURY (1561-0. 1637), the author of a Welsh grammar published in 1593; THOMAS SALESBURY (d. 1643), a poet, who probably fought for Charles I. at Edgehill; and another royalist, WILLIAM SALESBURY (c. is8o-c. 1659), governor of Denbigh Castle, which, in 1646, he gallantly defended in the interests of the king. SALEYER (Dutch, Saleijer), a group of islands belonging to the government of Celebes and its dependencies in the Dutch East Indies, numbering altogether 73, the principal being Saleyer, Tambalongang, Pulasi and Bahuluwang; between 5° 36' and 7° 25' S. and 119° 50' and 121° 30' E. The mainisland, Saleyer, is over 50 m. long and very narrow; area, 248 sq. m. The strait separating it from Celebes is more than 100 fathoms deep and, running in a strong current, is dangerous for native ships to navigate. The strata of the island are all sedimentary rocks: coralline limestone, occasionally sandstone; everywhere, except in the north and north-west, covered by a fertile soil. The watershed is a chain running throughout the island from N. to S., reaching in Bontona Haru 5840 ft., sloping steeply to the east coast. The population, mainly a mixed race of Macassars, Buginese, the natives of Luvu and Buton, is estimated at 57,000 on the main island and 24,000 on the dependent isles. They use the Macassar language, are for the most part nominally Mahommedans (though many heathen customs survive), and support themselves by agriculture, fishing, seafaring, trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast) and weaving. Field work is largely performed by a servile class. Raw and prepared cotton, tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, coco-nuts and coco-nut oil, and salt are exported. There are frequent emigra- tions to Celebes and other parts of the archipelago. For that reason, and also on account of its excellent horses and numerous buffaloes, Saleyer is often compared with Madura, being of the same import- ance to Celebes as is Madura to Java. SALFORD, a municipal, county -and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. by N. of London and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. Pop. (1908 estimate), 239,234. Salford also gives its name to the hundred of south-west Lanca- shire in which Manchester is situated; probably because when the district was divided into hundreds Manchester was in a ruinous condition from Danish ravages. The parliamentary and municipal boundaries of Salford are identical; area, 5170 acres. The parliamentary borough has three divisions, each returning a member. The borough, composed of three townships identical with the ancient manors of Salford, Pendleton and Broughton, is for the most part separated from Manchester by the river Irwell, which is crossed by a series of bridges. The valley of the Irwell, now largely occupied by factories, separates the higher ground of Broughton from that of Pendleton, and is flattest at the south where it joins the Manchester boundary. At the other extremity of Salford it joins the borough of Eccles. The chief railway station is Exchange station, which is in Salford, but has its main approach in Manchester. The Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North-Western railways serve the town. Until 1634 Salford was entirely dependent upon Manchester in its ecclesiastical arrangements. In that year Sacred Trinity Church ("Salford Chapel ) was built and endowed under the will of Humphrey Booth the elder, who also founded charities which have grown greatly in value. The yearly income of more than £17,000 is disposed of in pensions and in hospital grants. His grandson, Humphrey Booth the younger, left money for the repair of the church and the residue is distributed amongst the poor. The yearly revenue is about £1400. Salford is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, St John's, with its spire of 240 ft., is the most noteworthy ecclesiastical building in the borough. Salford has been to a large extent overshadowed by Manchester, and the two boroughs, in spite of their separate government, are so closely con- nected as to be one great urban area. Many of the institutions in Manchester are intended for the service also of Salford, which, however, has resisted all attempts at municipal amalgamation. The chief public buildings are the museum and art gallery at Peel Park, the technical school, the education offices and the Salford Hospital. The town hall, built in 1825, is no longer adequate for municipal needs. Broughton and Pendleton have each a separate town hall. The large and flourishing technical school was developed from a mechanics' institution. Peel Park, bought by public sub- scription in 1846, was the first public recreation ground in the borough. In the grounds are Langwortny Gallery and a museum. In the park are statues of Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, Sir Robert Peel, Joseph Brotherton and Richard Cobden. The only other monu- ment— a South African War memorial — is outside and almost opposite Peel Park. Other parks are at Seedley, Albert and Buile Hill; the last contains a museum, the contents of which have been transferred from Peel Park. There is also Kersal Moor, 21 acres of Moorland, crossed by a Roman road, which has been noticed for the variety of its flora, and for the capture of the Oecophara Woodiella, of which there is no other recorded habitat. The David Lewis recreation ground at Pendleton may also be named. Altogether Salford has thirty parks and open spaces having a total area of 217 acres. The corporation have also provided two cemeteries. When the municipal museum was founded in 1849 a reference library formed part of the institution, and from this has developed a free library system in which there are also nine lending libraries. The commercial and industrial history of Salford is closely bound up with that of Manchester. It is the seat of extensive cotton, iron, chemical and allied industries. It owes its development to the steam-engine and the factory system, and in recent years has shared in the increase of trade owing to the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, which has added greatly to its prosperity. This will be seen by an examination of the rateable value of the three townships now comprised in the borough. This in 1692 was £1404; in 1841, £244,853; in 1884, £734,220; in 1901, £967,727; in 1908-1909, £1,022,172. The municipal government is in the hands of a town council con- sisting of 16 aldermen and 48 councillors elected in 16 wards. The water-supply is from Manchester. The corporation have an excellent tramway service. There are also municipal baths. Salford has a separate commission of the peace. There are no certain figures as to the population before 1773, when at the instance of Dr Thomas Percival a census was taken of Manchester and Salford. The latter had then 4755 inhabitants. Census returns show that its population in 1801 was 14,477; in 1851, 63,850; and in 1901, 220,956. The death-rate in 1906 was 18-5 per thousand. Within the present borough area there have been found neo- lithic implements and British urns, as well as Roman coins. In 1851 traces of a Roman road were still visible. Domesday Book mentions Salford as held by Edward the Confessor and as having a forest three leagues long and the same broad. At the Conquest it was part of the domain granted to Roger of Poitou, but reverted to the crown in 1 102. After successively belonging to the earls of Chester and of Derby it passed to Edward Crouch- back, earl of Lancaster. It was erected into a duchy and county palatine in 1353, and when the house of Lancaster succeeded to the throne their Lancashire possessions were kept separate. Salford and Pendleton are still parts of the ancient duchy of Lancaster, belonging to the English crown. In 1231 Ranulf de Blundeville, earl of Chester, granted a charter constituting Salford a " free borough." But the government notwithstanding was essentially manorial and not municipal. In the Civil Wars between Charles I. and the parliament, Salford was royalist, 68 SALICETI— SALIC LAW and the unsuccessful siege of Manchester was conducted from its side of the Irwell. Its later history is mainly identical with that of Manchester (q.v.). In 1844 it received a municipal charter and became a county borough in 1889. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is no separate history ofSalford; see publications named under MANCHESTER. The MS. records of the Portmote or Court Leet, 1597-1669, were edited by J. G. Mandley for the Chetham Society, but others still remain in manuscript in the State Paper Office. (W. E. A. A.) SALIC2TI, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1757-1809), French revolutionist, was born at Saliceto, in Corsica, on the 26th of August 1757, of a family of Piacenza. After studying law in Tuscany, he became an avocat at the upper council of Bastia, and was elected deputy of the Third Estate to the French states-general in 1789. As deputy to the Convention, Saliceti voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent to Corsica on mission to oppose the counter-revolutionary intrigues. But the success of his adversaries compelled him to withdraw to Provence, where he took part in repressing the revolts at Marseilles and Toulon. It was on this mission that he met and helped his compatriot Bonaparte. On account of his friendship with Robespierre, Saliceti was denounced at the revolution of 9 Thermidor, and was saved only by the amnesty of the year IV. He subsequently organized the army of Italy and the two departments into which Corsica had been divided, was deputy to the Council of the Five Hundred, and accepted various offices under the Consulate and the Empire, being minister of police and of wai at Naples under Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1809). He died at Naples on the 23rd of December 1809 — it has been alleged by poison. SALICIN, SALICINUM, C,iH,,07, the bitter principle of willow-bark, discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most species of Salix and Popttlus, and has been obtained to the extent of 3 or 4% from the bark of 5. helix and 5. pentandra. Salicin is prepared from a decoction of the bark by first precipitat- ing the tannin by milk of lime, then evaporating the filtrate to a soft extract, and dissolving out the salicin by alcohol. As met with in commerce it is usually in the form of glossy white scales or needles. It is neutral, odourless, unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a bitter taste. It is soluble in about 30 parts of water and 80 parts of alcohol at the ordinary temperature, and in 0-7 of boiling water or in 2 pans of boiling alcohol, and more freely in alkaline liquids. It is also soluble in acetic acid without alteration, but is insoluble in chloroform and benzol. From phloridzin it is distinguished by its ammoniacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed to the air. Chemically, it is a glucoside derived from glucose and saligenin (o-oxy-benzyl alcohol), into which it is decomposed by the enzymes ptyalme and emulsin. Oxidation converts it into helicin (salicyl- aldehyde-glucose). Populin, a benzoyl salicin, is a glucoside found in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula. Salicin is used in medicine for the same purposes as salicylic acid and the salicylates. It is also used as a bitter tonic, i.e. a gastric stimulant, in doses of five grains. The ordinary dose may go up to forty grains or more with perfect safety, though the British Pharma- copoeia limits it to twenty. The remote action of the drug is that of salicylic acid or the numerous compounds that contain it (see SALICYLIC ACID). SALIC LAW, and OTHER PRANKISH LAWS. The Salic Law is one of those early medieval Frankish laws which, with other early Germanic laws (see GERMANIC LAWS), are known collect- ively as leges barbarorum. It originated with the Salian Franks, often simply called Salians, the chief of that conglomeration of Germanic peoples known as Franks. The Salic Law has come down to us in numerous MSS. and in divers forms. The most ancient form, represented by Latin MS. No. 4404 in the Biblioth&jue Nationale at Paris, consists of 65 chapters. The second form has the same 65 chapters, but contains interpolated provisions which show Christian influence. The third text ^consists of 99 chapters, and is divided into two groups, ac- cording as the MSS. contain or omit the " Malberg glosses."' The 1 Some of the MSS. contain words in a barbarian tongue and often preceded by the word " malb." or " malberg." These are admitted to be Frankish words, and are known as the Malberg glosses. Opinions differ as to the true import of these glosses; some scholars hold that the Salic Law was originally written in the Frankish vernacular, and that these words are remnants of the ancient text, while others regard them as legal formulae such as would be used either by a plaintiff in introducing a suit, or by the judge to denote the exact composition to be pronounced. It is more probable, however, that these words served the Franks, who were ignorant of Latin, as clues to the general sense of each paragraph of the law. fourth version, as emended by Charlemagne, consists of 70 chapters with the Latinity corrected and without the glosses. Though he added some new provisions, Charlemagne respected the ancient ones, even those which had long fallen into disuse. The last version, published by B. J. Herold at Basel in 1557 (Originum ac Germani- carum antiquilatum libn) from a MS. now lost, is founded on the second recension, but contains additions of considerably later date. The law is a compilation, the various chapters were composed at different periods, and we do not possess the original form of the compilation. Even the most ancient text, that in 65 chapters, contains passages which a comparison with the later texts shows to be interpolations. It is possible that chapter i., De mannire, was taken from a Merovingian capitulary and afterwards placed at the beginning of the Salic Law. This granted, internal evidence would go to show that the first compilation dates back to the timeof Clovis, and doubtless to the last years of his reign, after his victory over the Visigoths (507-511). Many facts combine to preclude the assign- ment of an earlier date to the compilation of the law. The Germanic tribes had no need to use the Latin language until they had coalesced with the Gallo-Roman population. The scale of judicial fines is given in the denarius (" which makes so many solidi "), and it is known that the monetary system of the solidus did not appear until the Merovingian period. Even in its earliest form the law contains no trace of paganism — a significant fact when we consider how closely law and religion are related in their origins. As pointed out by H. Brunner in his Deutsche Rechtsgeschickte (i. 438), the Salic Law contains imitations of the Visigothic laws of Euric (466-485). Finally, chapter xlvii. seems to indicate that the Frankish power extended south of the Loire, since it speaks of men dwelling " trans Legerem " being summoned to the mallus (judicial assembly) and being allowed eighty nights for their journey. On the other hand, it is impossible to place the date of compilation later. The Romans are clearly indicated in the law as subjects, but as not yet forming part of the army, which consists solely of the antrustions, i.e. Frankish warriors of the king's bodyguard. As yet the law is not impregnated with the Christian spirit ; this absence of both Christian and Pagan elements is due to the fact that many of the Franks were still heathens, although their king had been converted to Christianity. Christian enactments were introduced gradually into the later versions. Finally, we find capitularies of the kings immediately following Clovis being gradually incorporated in the text of the law — e.g. the Pactum pro tenore pads of Childebert Land Clotaire I. (511- 558), and the Ediclum Chilperici (561-584), chapter iii. of which cites and emends the Salic Law. The law as originally compiled underwent modifications of varying importance before it took the form known to us in Latin MS. No. 4404, to which the edict of Childebert I. and Clotaire I. is already appended. The classes of MSS. distinguished above give evidence of further changes, the law being supplemented by other capitularies and sundry extravagantia, prologues and epilogues, which some historians have wrongly assumed to be parts of the main text. Finally, Charlemagne, who took a keen interest in the ancient documents, had the law emended, the operation consisting in eliminating the Malberg glosses, which were no longer intelligible, correcting the Latinity of the ancient text, omitting a certain number of interpolated chapters, and adding others which had obtained general sanction. The Salic Law is a collection of ancient customs put into writing by order of the prince. In the sense that they already existed and came ready-made to the prince's hand, it is legitimate to speak of these customs as a popular law, a Volksrechl; but it was the prince who gave them force of law, emended them, and rejected such of the ancient usages as appeared to him antiquated. The king, moreover, had the right to add provisions to the law; and we find capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious in the form of additamenta to the Salic Law. From this it will be seen that the Salic Law is not a political law; it is in no way concerned with the succession to the throne of France, and it is absolutely false to suppose that it was the Salic Law that was invoked in 1316 and 1322 to exclude the daughters of Louis X. and Philip V. from the succession to the throne. The Salic Law is pre-eminently a penal code, which shows the amount of the fines for various offences and crimes, and contains, besides, some civil law enactments, such as the famous chapter on succession to private property (de alode), which declares that daughters cannot inherit land. The text is filled with valuable information on the state of the family and property in the 6th century, and it is astonishing to find Montesquieu describing the Salic Law as the law of a people ignorant of landed property. The code also contains abundant information on the organization of the tribunals (tribunal of the hundred and tribunal of the king) and on procedure. Like all the barbarian laws, the law of the Salian Franks SALICYLIC ACID 69 was a personal law; it applied only to the Salian Franks. As the Salians, however, were the victorious race, the law acquired an authority in excess of the other barbarian laws, and in the additions made to the Ripuarian, Lombard, and other allied laws, the Carolingians endeavoured to bring these laws into harmony with the Salic Law. Moreover, many persons, even of foreign race, declared themselves willing to live under the Salic Law. The principle of personality, however, gradually gave way to that of territoriality; and in every district, at least north ot the Loire, customs were formed in which were combined in varying proportions Roman law, ecclesiastical law and the various Germanic laws. So late as the loth and nth centuries we find certain texts invoking the Salic Law, but only in a vague and general way; and it would be rash to conclude from this that the Salic Law was still in force. Of the numerous editions of the Salic Law only the principal ones can be mentioned: J. M. Pardessus, Loi salique (Paris, 1843), 8 texts; G. Waitz, Das alte Recht der salischen Franken (1846), text of the first version; J. F. Behrend, Lex Salica (1873; 2nd ed., Weimar, 1897); J. H. Hessels, Lex Salica: the Ten Texts with the Glosses, and the Lex Emendata, with notes on the Prankish words in the Lex Salica by H. Kern (1880), the various texts shown in synoptic tables ; A. Holder, Lex Salica (1879 seq.), reproductions of all the MSS. with all the abbreviations; H. Geffcken, Lex Salica (Leipzig, 1898), the text in 65 chapters, with commentary paragraph by paragraph, and appendix of additamenta; and the edition undertaken by Mario Krammer for the Man. Germ. hist. For further information see the dissertations prefixed to the editions of Pardessus, Waitz and Hessels ; Jungbohn Clement, Forschungen tiber das Recht der salischen Franken (Berlin, 1876); R. Sohm, Der Process der Lex Salica (Weimar, 1867; French trans, by M. Th6venin) and Die frankische Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung (Weimar, 1876); J. J. Thonissen, L'Organisa- tion judiciaire, le droit penal el la procedure de la loi salique (2nd ed., Brussels and Paris, 1882); P. E. Fahlbeck, La Royaule el la droit royal francs (Lund, 1883); Mario Krammer, " Kntische Untersu- chungen zur Lex Salica " in the Neues Archiv, xxx. 263 seq.; H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i. 427 seq. The Lex Ripuaria was the law of the Ripuarian Franks, who dwelt between the Meuse and the Rhine, and whose centre was Cologne. We have no ancient MSS. of the law of the Ripuarians; the 35 MSS. we possess, as well as those now lost which served as the basis of the old editions, do not go back beyond the time of Charlemagne (end of 8th century and gth century). In all these MSS. the text is identical, but it is a revised text — in other words, we have only a lex emendata. On analysis, the law of the Ripuarians, which contains 89 chapters, falls into three heterogeneous divisions. Chapters i.- xxxi. consist of a scale of compositions; but, although the fines are calculated, not on the unit of 15 solidi, as in the Salic Law, but on that of 18 solidi, it is clear that this part is, already influenced by the Salic Law. Chapters xxxii.-lxiv. are taken directly from the Salic Law; the provisions follow the same arrangement; the unit of the compositions is 15 solidi; but capitularies are interpolated relating to the affranchisement and sale of immovable property. Chapters Ixv.-lxxxix. consist of provisions of various kinds, some taken from lost capitularies and from the Salic Law, and others of unknown origin. The compilation apparently goes back to the reign of Dagobert I. (629-630), to a time when the power of the mayors of the palace was still feeble, since we read of a mayor being threatened with the death penalty for taking bribes in the course of his judicial duties. It is probable, however, that the first two parts are older than the third. Already in the Ripuarian Law the diverg- ences from the old Germanic law are greater than in the Salic Law. In the Ripuarian Law a certain importance attaches to written deeds; the clergy are protected by a higher wergild — 600 solidi for a priest, and 900 for a bishop; on the other hand, more space is given to the cojuralores (sworn witnesses); and we note the appearance of the judicial duel, which is not men- tioned in the Salic Law. There is an edition of the text of the Ripuarian Law in Man. Ger. hist. Leges (1883), v. 185 seq. by R. Sohm, who also brought out a separate edition in 1885 for the use of schools. For further informa- tion see the prefaces to Sohm's editions; Ernst Mayer, Zur Entstehung der Lex Ribuariorum (Munich, 1886); Julius Ficker, " Die Heimat der Lex Ribuaria " in the Mitteilunge.n fur osterrei- chische Geschichtsforschung (supplt., vol. v.); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i., 442. Lastly, we possess a judicial text in 48 paragraphs, which bears the title of Notitia vel commemoratio de ilia ewa (law), quae se ad Amor em habet. This was in use in the district along the Yssel formerly called Hamalant. The name Hamalant is unquestionably derived from the Prankish tribe of the Chamavi, and the document is often called Lex Francorum Chamavorum. This text, however, is not a law, but rather an abstract of the special usages obtaining in those regions — what the Germans call a Weistum. It was compiled by the itinerant Prankish officials known as the missi Dominici, and the text undoubtedly goes back to the time of Charlemagne, perhaps to the years 802 and 803, when the activity of the missi was at its height. In certain chapters it is possible to discern the questions of the missi and the answers of the inhabitants. Theie is an edition of this text by R. Sohm in Man. Germ. hist. Leges, v. 269, and another appended to the same writer's school edition of the Lex Ribuaria. For further information see E. T. Gauprj, Lex Francorum Chamavorum (Breblau, 1855; French trans, in vol. i. of the Revue historique de droit }ran$ais et etranger); Fustel de Coulanges, Nouvelles Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (Paris, 1891), pp. 399-414; H. Froidevaux, Recherches sur la lex dicta Francorum Chamavorum (Paris, 1891). (C. PF.) SALICYLIC ACID (ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid), an aromatic acid, C6IL.(OH)(CO2H), found in the free state in the buds of Spiraea Ulmaria and, as its methyl ester, in gaultheria oil and in the essential oil of Andromeda Leschenaullii. It was discovered in 1838 by Piria as a decomposition product of salicin. It may be obtained by the oxidation of saligenin and of salicylic aldehyde; by the distillation of copper benzoate; by the decomposition of anthranilic acid with nitrous acid; by fusion of ortho-chlor or ortho-brom benzoic acid with potash; by heating ortho- cyanphenol with alcoholic potash; by heating a mixture of phenol, carbon tetrachloride and alcoholic potash to 100° C. (F. Tiemann and K Reimer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1285); and by the action of sodium on a mixture of phenol and chlorcarbonic ester (T. Wilm and G. Wischin, Zeit.f. Chemie, 1868, 6). It is manufactured by Kolbe's process or by some modification of the same. Sodium phenolate is heated in a stream of carbon dioxide in an iron retort at a temperature of 180-220° C., when half the phenol distils over and a basic sodium salicylate is left. The sodium salt is dissolved in water and the free acid precipitated by hydrochloric acid (H. Kolbe, Ann., 1860, 115, p. 201). R. Schmitt (Jour. prak. Chem., 1885 (2), 31, p. 407) modified the process by saturating sodium phenolate at 130° C. with carbon dioxide, in an autoclave, sodium phenyl carbonate CjH&OCOzNa being thus formed; by continuing the heating under pressure this carbonate gradually changes into mono-sodium salicylate. S. Manasse (German patent 73,279) prepared an intimate mixture of phenol and potassium carbonate, which is then heated in a closed vessel with carbon dioxide, best at 130-160° C. The Chemische Fabrik vorm. Hofmann and Schotensack decompose a mixture of phenol (3 molecules) and sodium carbonate (4 mols.) with carbonyl chloride at 140-200° C. When 90 % of the phenol has distilled over, the residue is dissolved and hydrochloric acid added, any phenol remaining is blown over in a current of steam, and the salicylic acid finally precipitated by hydrochloric acid. The acid may also be obtained by passing carbon monoxide over a mixture of sodium phenolate and sodium carbonate at200°C.:Na2CO3+ C6H2ONa+CO = C7H4O2Na2 + HCO2Na;and by heating sodium phenolate with ethyl phenyl carbonate to 200° C. : C6H6O-CO2C2H+C6H6ONa = HO-CeH4COjNa-|-CeH6-C2H5. It isto be noted in the Kolbe method of synthesis that potassium pheno- late may be used in place of the sodium salt, provided that the temperature be kept low (about 1 50 ° C) , for at the higher temperature (220° C.) the isomeric para-oxybenzoic acid is produced. Salicylic acid crystallizes in small colourless needles which melt at 155° C. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily dissolves in hot. It sublimes, but on rapid heating decomposes into carbon dioxide and phenol. It is volatile in steam. Ferric chloride colours its aqueous solution violet. Potassium bichro- mate and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and water; and potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid to chloranil. On boiling with concentrated nitric acid it yields picric acid. When heated with nesorcin to 200° C. it gives trioxybenzophenone. Bromine water in dilute aqueous solution gives a white pre- cipitate of tribromophenol-bromide CeH2Br3-OBr. Sodium reduces salicylic acid in boiling amyl alcohol solution to w-pimelic acid (A. Einhorn and R. Willstatter, Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2, 913; 1894, 27 p. 331). Potassium persulphate oxidizes it in alkaline solution, the product on boiling with acids giving 7° SALIERI— SALII hydroquinone carboxylic acid (German Patent 81,297). When boiled with calcium chloride and ammonia, salicylic acid gives a precipitate of insoluble basic calcium salicylate, CeKU <^ Q 2^> Ca, a reaction which serves to distinguish it from the isomeric meta- and para-hydroxybenzoic acids. It yields both esters and ethers since it is an acid and also a phenol. Methyl Salicylate, C«H4(OH)-COjCH,, found in oil of wintergreen, in the oil of Viola tricolor and in the root of varieties of Polygala, is a pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 222° C. On passing dry ammonia into the boiling ester, it gives salicylamide and dimethylam- ine. When boiled with aniline it gives methylaniline and phenol. Ethyl salicylate, C,H4(OH)-CO2CtHs, is obtained by boiling salicylic acid with alcohol and a little sulphuric acid, or by dropping an alco- holic solution of salicylic acid into 0-naphthalene sulphonic acid at a temperature of 140-150° C. (German Patent 76,574). It is a pleasant- smelling liquid which boils at 233° C. It is practically unchanged when boiled with aniline. Phenyl salicylate, C«H4(OH)-C-OjC5H5> or salol, is obtained by heating salicylic acid, phenol and phosphorus oxychloride to 120-125° C. ; by heating salicylic acid to 220° C.; or by heating salicyl metaphosphoric acid and phenol to 140-150° C. (German Patent 85,565). It crystallizes in rhombic plates which melt at 42° C. and boil at 172° C. (12 mm.). Its sodium salt is transformed into the isomeric C«H«(OC6HS) CO2Na when heated to 300°. When heated in air for many hours it decomposes, yielding carbon dioxide, phenol and xanthone. Acetyl-salicylic acid (salacetic acid), CeH4(O-COCH,)-COsH, is obtained by the action of acetyl chloride on the acid or its sodium salt (K. Kraut, Ann., 1869, 150, p. 9). It crystallizes in needles and melts at 132° C. (with decom- position). Hydrolysis with baryta water gives acetic and salicylic acids. It is used in medicine under the names aspirin, acetysal, aletodin, saletin, xaxa, &c. It has the same action as salicylic acid and salicylates, but is said to be much freer from objectionable secondary effects. Salicylo-salicylic acid O- (C,H4COjH)j is obtained by continued heating of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride to 130- 140° C. It is an amorphous yellow mass which is easily soluble in alcohol. Applications. — The addition of a little of the acid to glue renders it more tenacious; skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution; butter containing a small quantity of it may be kept sweet for months even in the hottest weather. It also prevents the mouldiness of preserved fruits and has been found useful in the manufacture of vinegar. The use of salicylic acid as a food preservative, was, however, condemned in the findings of the commission appointed by the government of the United States of America, in 1904. Medicine. — The pharmacopeial dose of the acid is 5-20 grains, but it is so unrelated to experience and practice that it may be ignored. The British Pharmacopeia contains only one prepara- tion, an ointment containing one part of acid to 49 of white paraffin ointment. Salicylic acid is now never given internally, being replaced by its sodium salt, which is much cheaper, more soluble and less irritating to mucous membranes. The salt has a sweet, mawkish taste. Salicylic acid and salicin (j[.r.) share the properties common to the group of aromatic acids, which, as a group, are antiseptic without being toxic to man — a property practically unique ; are unstable in the Body; are antipyetic and analgesic; and diminish the excretion of urea by the kidneys. As an antiseptic salicylic acid is somewhat less powerful than carbolic acid, but its insolubility renders it un- suitable for general use. It is much more powerful than carbolic acid in its inhibitory action upon unorganized ferments such as pepsin or ptyalin. Salicyclic acid is not absorbed by the skin, but it rapidly kills the cells of the epidermis, without affecting the im- mediately subjacent cells of the dermis (" true skin "). It has a very useful local anhidrotic action. Salicylic acid is a powerful irritant when inhaled or swallowed in a concentrated form, and even when much diluted it causes pain, nausea and vomiting. When salicin ia taken internally no irritant action occurs, nor is there any antisepsis. Whatever drug of this group be taken, the product absorbed by the blood is almost entirely sodium salicylate. When the salt is taken by the mouth, absorption is extremely rapid, the salt being present in the peripheral blood within ten minutes. Sodium salicylate circulates in the blood unchanged, decom- position occurring in the kidney, and probably in tissues suffering from the Diplococcus rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. It used to be stated that these drugs are marked cardiac depressants; and the heart being invariably implicated in rheumatic fever, it is supposed that these drugs must be given with great caution. It has now been established that, provided the kidneys be healthy, natural salicylic acid, sodium salicylate prepared from the natural acid, and salicin, are not cardiac depressants. Of the two latter, 300 grains may be given in a dose and ij oz. in twenty-four hours, without any toxic symptoms. The artificial acid and its salt contain ortho-, para- and meta-cresotic acids, which are cardiac depressants. The vegetable product — which is extremely expensive — must be prescribed or the synthetic product guaranteed ' physiologically pure," i.e. tested upon animals and found to have no toxic properties. Salicylates are the next safest to quinine of all antipyretics, whilst being much more powerful in all febrile states except malaria. Sodium sali- cylate escapes from the blood mainly by the kidneys, in the secretion of which sodium salicylate and salicyluric acid can be detected within fifteen minutes of its administration. After large doses haematuria has been observed in a few cases. The rapid excretion by the kidneys is one of the cardinal conditions of safety, and also necessitates the very frequent administration of the drug. Therapeutics. — Salicylic acid is used externally for the removal of corns and similar epidermic thickenings. It causes some pain, so that a sedative should be added. A common formula has II parts of the acid, 3 of extract of Indian hemp, and 86 of collodion. There is probably no better remedy for corns. Perspiration of the feet cannot be attacked locally with more success than by a powder consisting of salicylic acid, starch and chalk. These drugs are specific for acute rheumatism (rheumatic fever). The drug is not a true specific, as quinine is for malaria , since it rarely, if ever, prevents the cardiac damage usually done by rheu- matic fever; but it entirely removes the agonizing pain, shortly after its administration, and, an hour or two later, brings down the temperature to normal. In thirty-six hours no symptoms are left. If the drug be now discontinued, they will return in over ox>% of cases. In acute gonorrhoeal arthritis, simulating rheumatic fever, salicylates are useless. They may thus afford a means of diagnosis. In rheumatic hyperpyrexia, where the poison has attacked the central nervous system, salicylates almost always fail. The mode of their administration in rheumatic fever is of the utmost importance. At first 20 grains of sodium salicylate should be given every hour: the interval being doubled as soon as the pain disappears, and extended to three hours when the temperature becomes normal. The patient should continue to take about 100 grains a day for at least a fortnight after he is apparently convalescent, otherwise a recrudescence is very probable. Salicylate of soda may occasionally be of use in cases of gallstone, owing to its action on the bile. It often relieves neuralgia, especially when combined with caffeine and quinine. Salicylism, or salicylic poisoning, occurs in a good many cases of the use of these drugs. Provided the kidneys be healthy, the symptoms may be ignored. If nephritis be present, it may be seriously aggravated, and the drug must therefore be withheld. The headache, deafness, ringing in the ears and even delirium of salicylism, are practically identical with the symptoms of cinchonism. The drug must be at once withheld if haemorrhages (subcutaneous, retinal, &c.) are observed. As in the case of quinine, the administra- tion of small doses of hydrobromic acid often relieve the milder symptoms. SALIERI, ANTONIO (1750-1823), Italian composer, was born at Legnano, on the igth of August 1750. His father was a mer- chant who died a bankrupt. Through the family of Mocenigo he obtained free admission to the choir school of St Mark's, Venice. In 1766 he was taken to Vienna by F. L. Gassmann, who introduced him to the emperor Joseph. His first opera, Le Donne letter ate, was produced at the Burg-Theater in 1770. Others followed in rapid succession, and his Armida (1771) was a triumphant success. On Gassmann's death in 1774, he became Kapellmeister and, on the death of Bonno in 1788, H of kapellmeister. He held his offices for fifty years, though he made frequent visits to Italy and Paris, and composed music for many European theatres. His chefd'osuvre was Tarare (afterwards called Axur, re d'Ormus), a work which was preferred by the public of Vienna to Mozart's Don Giovanni. It was first produced at Vienna on the 8th of June 1787, and was revived at Leipzig in 1846, though only for a single representation. His last opera was Die Neger, produced in 1804. After this he devoted himself to the composition of church music, for which he had a very decided talent. Salieri lived on friendly terms with Haydn, but was a bitter enemy to Mozart, whose death he was suspected of having produced by poison; but no evidence was ever forthcoming to give colour to the accusation. He retired from office on his full salary in 1824, and died at Vienna on the 7th of May 1825. Salieri gave lessons in composition to Cherubim and to Beethoven, who dedicated to him his " Three Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin," See also Albert von Hermann, Antonio Salieri, eine Studie (1897); J. F. Edler von Mosel, Ober das Leben und die Werke des Antonio Salieri (Vienna, 1827). SALII, the " dancers," an old Italian priesthood, said to have been instituted by Numa for the service of Mars, although later tradition derived them from Greece. They were originally twelve in number, called Salii Palatini to distinguish them from SALIMBENE— SALISBURY, EARLS OF a second college of twelve, Salii Agonales or Collini, said to have been added by Tullus Hostilius; the Palatini were consecrated to Mars, the Collini to Quirinus. All the members were patricians, vacancies being filled by co-optation from young men whose parents were both living; membership was for life, subject to certain exceptions. The officials of the college were the magister, the praesul, and the vates (the leaders in dance and song). Each college had the care of twelve sacred shields called ancilia. According to the story, during the reign of Numa a small oval shield fell from heaven, and Numa, in order to prevent its being stolen, had eleven others made exactly like it. They were the work of a smith named Mamurius Veturius, probably identical with the god Mamers (Mars) himself. These twelve shields (amongst which was the original one) were in charge of the Salii Palatini. The greater part of March (the birth-month of Mars), beginning from the 1st, on which day the ancile was said to have fallen from heaven and the campaigning season began, was devoted to various ceremonies con- nected with the Salii. On the 1st, they marched in procession through the city, dressed in an embroidered tunic, a brazen breast- plate and a peaked cap ; each carried a sword by his side and a short staff in his right hand, with which the shield, borne on the left arm, was struck from time to time. A halt was made at the altars and temples, where the Salii, singing a special chant, danced a war dance. Every day the procession stopped at certain stations (mansiones), where the shields were deposited for the night, and the Salii partook of a banquet (see Horace, Odes, i. 37. 2). On the next day the pro- cession passed on to another mansio; this continued till the 24th, when the shields were replaced in their sacrarium. During this period the Salii took part in certain other festivities: the Equirria (Ecurria) on the I4th, a chariot race in honour of Mars on the Campus Martius (in later times called Mamuralia, in honour of Mamurius), at which a skin was beaten with staves in imitation of hammering; the Quinquatrus on the igth, a one-day festival, at which the shields were cleansed; the Tubilustrium on the 23rd, when the trumpets of the priests were purified. On the igth of October, at the Armi- lustrium or purification of arms, the ancilia were again brought out and then put away for the winter. The old chant of the Salii, called axamenta, was written in the old Saturnian metre, in language so archaic that even the priests themselves could hardly understand it. See Quintilian, Instil, i. 6. 40; also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874). The best account of the Salii generally will be found in Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltimg, iii. (1885) pp. 427-438- SALIMBENE, or more usually SALIMBENE OF PARMA (1221- c. 1290), the name taken by the Italian writer, Ognibene di Guido di Adamo. The son of a crusader, Gui di Adamo, and born at Parma on the pth of October 1221, Ognibene entered the order of the Minorites in 1238, and was known as brother Salimbene. He passed some years in Pisa and other Italian towns; then in 1247 he was sent to Lyons, and from Lyons he went to Paris, returning through France to Genoa, where he became a priest in 1249. From 1249 to 1256 he resided at Ferrara, engaged in writing and in copying manuscripts, but later he found time to move from place to place. His concluding years were mainly spent in monastic retirement in Italy, and he died soon after 1 288. Salimbene was acquainted with many of the important personages of his day, including the emperor Frederick II., the French king St Louis and Pope Innocent IV. ; and his Chronicon, written after 1 281, is a work of unusual value. This covers the period 1167-1287. Salimbene is a very discursive and a very personal writer, but he gives a remarkably vivid picture of life in France and Italy during the I3th century. The manuscript of the chronicle was found during the i8th century, and passed into the Vatican library, where it now remains. The part of the Chronicon dealing with the period between 1212 and 1287 was edited by A. Bertani and published at Parma in 1857. This edition, however, is very defective, but an excellent and more complete one has been edited by O. Holder- Egger, and is printed in Band xxxii. of the Monumenta Germaniae kistorica. Scriptores (Hanover, 1905). See U. Balzani, Le Croniche italiane net media evo (Milan, 1884) ; L. Clexlat, De fratre Salimbene et de ejus chronicae aucloritate (Paris, 1878); E. Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (1903); D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical Studies (1907); G. G. Coulton, From St Francis to Dante (1906). SALINA, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the Smoky Hill river, near the mouth of the Saline river, about 100 m. W. of Topeka. Pop. (1905) 7829; (1910) 9688. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Union Pacific railways. Salina has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1885, opened in 1886) and of St John's Military School (Protestant Episcopal) . The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Salina is the central market of a fertile farming region. Power is furnished by the river, and among the manu- factures are flour, agricultural implements, foundry products and carriages. The first settlement on the site of Salina was made in 1857. Its first railway, the Union Pacific, came through in 1867. Salina was first chartered as a city in 1870. SALINA CRUZ, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, at the southern terminus of the Tehuantepec National Railway. It is situated near the mouth of the Tehuantepec river, on the open coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and has no natural harbour. There was only a small Indian village here before Salina Cruz was chosen as the Pacific terminus of the railway. Since then a modern town has been laid out and built on adjacent higher ground. The new port was opened to traffic in 1907 and in 1909 its population was largely composed of labourers. A costly artificial harbour has been built by the Mexican govern- ment to accommodate the traffic of the Tehuantepec railway. It is formed by the construction of two breakwaters, the western 3260 ft. and the eastern 1900 ft. long, which curve toward each other at their outer extremities and leave an entrance 635 ft. wide. The enclosed space is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a double line of quays wide enough to carry six great warehouses with electric cranes on both sides and a number of railway tracks. Connected with the new port works is one of the largest dry docks in the world — 610 ft. long and 89 ft. wide, with a depth of 28 ft. on its sill at low water. The works were planned to handle an immense volume of transcontinental freight, and before they were finished four steamship lines had arranged regular calls at Salina Cruz; this number has since been largely increased. SALINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on a branch line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4293. Salins is situated in the narrow valley of the Furieuse, between two fortified hills, while to the north rises Mont Poupet (2798 ft.). The town possesses an interesting Romanesque church (which has been well restored) and an hotel de ville of the i8th century. A Jesuit chapel of the I7th century contains a library (established in 1 593) and a museum. Salins owes its name to its saline waters, used for bathing and drinking. There are also salt workings and gypsum deposits. The territory of Salins, which was enfeoffed in the loth century by the abbey of Saint Maurice in Valais to the counts of M&con, remained in possession of their descendants till 1175. Maurette de Salins, heiress of this dynasty, left the lordship to the house of Vienne, and her granddaughter sold it in 1225 to Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy.who ceded it in 1237 to John of Chalon (d.1267) in exchange for the countship of Chalon-sur-Sa&ne. John's descendants — counts and dukes of Burgundy, emperors and kings of the house of Austria — bore the title of sire de Salins. In 1477 Salins was taken by the French and temporarily made the seat of the parlement of Franche- Comte' by Louis XI. In 1668 and 1674 it was retaken by the French and thenceforward remained in their power. In 1825 the town was almost destroyed by fire. In 1871 it successfully resisted the German troops. SALISBURY, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Salisbury was first created about 1149, when it was conferred on Patrick de Salisbury (sometimes from an early date called in error Patrick Devereux), a descendant of Edward de Salisbury, mentioned in Domesday as vicecomes of Wiltshire. His granddaughter Isabella became countess of Salisbury suojure on the death of her father, William the 2nd earl, without male heirs, in 1196, and the title was assumed by her husband, William de Longespee (d. 1226), illegitimate son of King Henry II. possibly by Rosamond Clifford (" The fair Rosamond "). Isabella survived her husband, and outlived both her son and grandson, both called Sir William de Longespee, and on her death in 1261 her great-granddaughter Margaret (d. 1310), wife of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, probably became suojure countess of Salisbury; she transmitted the title to her daughter Alice, who married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. Lancaster having been attainted and beheaded in 1322, the countess made a surrender of her lands SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF and titles to Edward II., the earldom thus lapsing to the crown. The earldom of Salisbury was granted in 1337 by Edward III. to William de Montacute, Lord Montacute (1301-1344), in whose family it remained till 1400, when John, 3rd earl of this line, was attainted and his titles forfeited. His son Thomas (1388- 1428) was restored in blood in 1421; and Thomas's daughter and heiress, Alice, married Sir Richard Neville (1400-1460), a younger son of Ralph Neville, ist earl of Westmorland and a grandson of John of Gaunt, who sat in parliament in right of his wife as earl of Salisbury; he was succeeded by his son Richard, on whose death without male issue in 1471 the earldom fell into abeyance. George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., who married Richard's daughter and co-heiress, Isabel, became by a separate creation earl of Salisbury in I47>, but by his attainder in 1478 this title was forfeited, and immedi- ately afterwards was granted to Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of Richard duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., on whose death in 1484 it became extinct. Richard III.'s queen, Anne, was a sister of the above-mentioned Isabel, duchess of Clarence, and co-heiress with her of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. On the death of Queen Anne in 1485 the abeyance of the older creation terminated, Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of George duke of Clarence by Isabel Neville, becoming earl of Salisbury as successor to his mother's right. He was attainted in 1504, five years after his execution, but the earldom then forfeited was restored to his sister Margaret (1474-1541), widow of Sir Richard Pole, in 1513. This lady was also attainted, with forfeiture of her titles, in 1539. Sir Robert Cecil, second son of the ist Lord Burghley (q.v.), was created earl of Salisbury (1605), having no connexion in blood with the former holders of the title. (See SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, IST EARL OF.) In his family the earldom has remained till the present day, the 7th earl of the line having been created marquess of Salisbury in 1 789. See G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896). SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNE- CECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903), British statesman, second son of James, 2nd marquess, by his first wife, Frances Mary Gascoyne, was born at Hatfield on the 3rd of February 1830, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1850. At Oxford he was an active member of the Union Debating Society. The first few years after leaving the university were spent by Lord Robert Cecil (as he then was) in travel, as far afield as New Zealand; but in 1853 he was returned unopposed to the House of Commons as Conservative member for Stamford, being elected in the same year a fellow of All Souls. He made his maiden speech in Parliament on the 7th of April 1854, in opposition to Lord John Russell's Oxford University Bill. The speech- was marked by scepticism as to the utility of reforms, and Lord Robert prophesied that if the wishes of founders were disregarded, nobody would in future care to found anything. In 1857 he Burly appeared as the author of his first Bill — for establishing year* la the voting-paper system at parliamentary elections; and in the same year he married Georgina Caroline, daughter of Sir Edward Holt Alderson, a baron of the Court of Exchequer, a large share of whose great intellectual abilities she inherited. Lord Robert Cecil continued to be active not only in politics, but, for several years, in journalism, the income he earned by his pen being then a matter of pecuniary importance to him. One of his contemporaries at Oxford had been Thomas Hamber of Oriel, who became editor of the Standard, and during these years Cecil was an occasional contributor of " leaders " to that paper. He also contributed to the Saturday Review, founded in 1855 by his brother-in-law Beresford Hope, and edited by his friend Douglas Cook; not infrequently he wrote for the Quarterly (where, in 1867, he was to publish his famous article on " the Conservative Surrender ") ; and in 1858 he contributed to Oxford Essays a paper on " The Theories of Parliamentary Reform, "giving expression to the more intellectual and aristocratic antagonism to doctrinaire Liberal views on the Parlia- ment, subject, while admitting the existence of many anomalies in the existing electoral system. In February of the next year, when Disraeli introduced his Reform Bill with its " fancy franchises," the member for Stamford was prominent among its critics from the Tory point of view. During the seven years that followed Lord Robert was always ready to defend the Church, or the higher interests of Conservatism and property; and his speeches then, not less than later, showed a caustic quality and a tendency to what became known as " blazing indiscretions." For example, when the repeal of the paper duty was being discussed in 1861, he asked whether it " could be maintained that a person of any education could learn anything worth knowing from a penny paper " — a question the answer to which has been given by the powerful, highly organized, and admirable Conservative penny press of a subsequent day. A little later he declared the proceed- ings of the Government " more worthy of an attorney than of a statesman "; and on being rebuked, apologized — to the attorneys. He also charged Lord John Russell with adopting " a sort of tariff of insolence " in his dealings with foreign Powers, strong and weak. It was not, however, till the death of Palmerston and the removal of Lord John Russell to the House of Lords had brought Gladstone to the front that Lord Robert Cecil — who became Lord Cranborne by the death of his elder brother on the I4th of June 1 865 — began to be accepted the as a politician of the first rank. His emergence Franchise coincided with the opening of the new area in British politics, ushered in by the practical steps taken to extend the parliamentary franchise. On the I2th of March 1866 Gladstone brought forward his measure to establish a £7 franchise in boroughs and a £14 franchise in counties, which were calculated to add 400,000 voters to the existing lists. Lord Cranborne met the Bill with a persistent opposition, his rigorous logic and merciless hostility to clap-trap tending strongly to reinforce the impassioned eloquence of Robert Lowe. But though he attacked the Government Bill both in principle and detail, he did not absolutely commit himself to a position of hostility to Reform of every kind; and on the defeat of Glad- stone's Ministry no surprise was expressed at his joining the Cabinet of Lord Derby as secretary of state for India, even when it became known that a settlement of the Reform question was part of the Tory programme. The early months of the new Government's tenure were marked by the incident of the Hyde Park riots; and if there had been members of the Cabinet and party who believed up to that time that the Reform question was not urgent the action of the Reform League and the London populace forced them to a different conclusion. On the nth of February Disraeli informed the House of Commons that the Government intended to ask its assent to a series of thirteen resolutions; but when, on the 26th of February, the Liberal leaders demanded that the Government should produce a Bill, Disraeli at once consented to do so. The introduction of a Bill was, however, delayed by the resignation of Lord Cranborne, General Peel and Lord Carnarvon. The Cabinet had been considering two alternative measures, widely different in kind and extent, and the final decision between the two was taken in ten minutes (whence the nickname of the " Ten Minutes Bill ") at an informal gathering of the Cabinet held just before Derby was engaged to address a general meeting of the party. At a Cabinet council held on the 23rd of February measure A had been agreed upon, the three doubtful ministers having been persuaded that the checks and safeguards provided were sufficient; in the interval between Saturday and Monday they had come to the conclusion that the checks were inadequate; on Monday morning they had gone to Lord Derby and told him so; at two o'clock the rest of the Cabinet, hastily 'summoned, had been informed of the new situation, and had there and then, before the meeting at half-past two, agreed, in order to retain their three colleagues, to throw over measure A, and to present measure B to the country as the fruit of their matured and unanimous wisdom. Derby at the meeting, and Disraeli a few hours later in the House of Commons, explained their new SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF 73 measure — a measure based upon a £6 franchise; but their own side did not like it, the Opposition were furious, and the moral sense of the country was revolted by the undisguised adoption of almost the very Bill which the Conservatives had refused to accept from their opponents only a year before. The result was that the Government reverted to measure A, and the three ministers again handed in their resignations. In the . debate on the third reading of the Bill, when its passage through the House of Commons without a division was assured, Lord Cranborne showed with caustic rhetoric how the " precautions, guarantees, and securities " with which the Bill had bristled on its second reading had been dropped one after another at the bidding of Gladstone. In countries where politics are conducted on any other than the give-and-take principles in vogue in England, such a breach as that which occurred in 1867 between Lord Cranborne * , and his former colleagues, especially Disraeli, would have been beyond repair. But Cranborne, though an aristocrat both by birth and by conviction, was not impracticable; moreover, Disraeli, who had himself risen to eminence through invective, admired rather than resented that gift in others; and their common opposition to Gladstone was certain to reunite the two colleagues. In the session of 1868 Gladstone announced that he meant to take up the Irish question, and to deal especially with the celebrated " Upas tree," of which the first branch was the Established Church. By way of giving lull notice to the electorate, he brought in a series of resolutions on this question; and though the attitude adopted by the official Conservatives towards them was not one of serious antagonism, Lord Cranborne vigorously attacked them. This was his last speech in the House of Commons, for on the i zth of April his father died, and he became 3rd marquess of Salisbury. In the House of Lords the new Lord Salisbury's style of eloquence — terse, incisive and wholly free from false ornament — found an even more appreciative audience than it had met with in the House of Commons. The questions with which he was first called upon to deal were questions in which his interest was keen — the recommendations of the Ritual Commission and, some time kter, the Irish Church Suspensory Bill. Lord Salisbury's argu- ment was that the last session of an expiring parliament was not the time in which so grave a matter as the Irish Church Establishment should be judged or prejudged; that a Suspensory Bill involved the question of disestablishment; and that such a principle could not be accepted by the Lords until the country had pronounced decisively in its favour. Even then there were those who raised the cry that the only business of the House of Lords was to register the decisions of the Commons, and that if they refused to do so it was at their peril. Lord Salisbury met this cry boldly and firmly: — " When the opinion of your countrymen has declared itself, and you sec that their convictions — their firm, deliberate, sustained convic- tions— are in favour of any course, I do not for a moment deny that it is your duty to yield." In the very next session Lord Salisbury was called upon to put his view into practice, and his influence went far to persuade the peers to pass the Irish Church Disestablishment Bill. In his opinion the general election of the autumn of 1868 had been fought on this question; his friends had lost, and there was nothing for them to do but to bow to the necessities of the situa- tion. The story of his conduct in the matter has been told in some fulness in the Life of Archbishop Tail, with whom Salisbury acted, and who throughout those critical weeks played a most important part as mediator between the two extreme parties — those of Lord Cairns (representing Ulster) and Gladstone. October 1869 saw the death of the old Lord Derby, who was still the titular leader of his party; and he was succeeded as leader of the House of Lords by Cairns. For the dignified post of chancellor of the university of Oxford Convocation unanimously chose as Derby's successor the marquess of Salisbury. Derby had translated the Iliad very well, but his successor was far more able to sympathize with the academic mind and temper. He was at heart a student, and found his best satisfaction in scientific research and in scientific speculation; while still a young man he had made useful contributions to the investigation of the flora of Hertfordshire, and at Hatfield he had his own laboratory, where he was able to satisfy his interest in chemical and electrical research. As regards his connexion with Oxford may be men- tioned in particular his appointment, in 1877, of a second University Commission, and his appearance, in September 1894, in the Sheldonian Theatre as president of the British Association. It is not necessary to dwell at any length upon the part taken by Lord Salisbury between 1869 and 1873 in respect of the other great political measures of Gladstone's Government — the Irish Land Act, the Act Abolishing Purchase in the Army, Forster's Education Act, &c. Nor does of 1874. his attitude towards the Franco-German War of 1870- 71 call for any remark; a British leader of Opposition is bound, even more than a minister, to preserve a discreet silence on such occasions. But early in 1874 came the dissolution, suddenly announced in Gladstone's famous Greenwich letter, with the promise of the abolition of the income-tax. For the first time since 1841 the Conservatives found themselves in office with a large majority in the House of Commons. In Disraeli's new Cabinet in 1874 Salisbury accepted his old position at the India Office. The first task with which the new secretary of state had to deal was one of those periodical famines which are the great scourge of India; he supported the action of Lord Northbrook, the viceroy, and refused to interfere with private trade by prohibiting the export of grain. This attitude was amply justified, and Lord Salisbury presently declared that the action of the Government had given so much confidence to private traders that, by their means, " grain was pouring into the dis- tressed districts at a greater rate than that which was being carried by the public agency, the amount reaching nearly 200x3 tons a day." The Public Worship Regulation Bill of 1874 was the occasion of a famous passage of arms between Salisbury and his chief. The Commons had inserted an amendment which, on consideration by the Lords, Salisbury opposed, with the remark that it was not for the peers to attend to the " bluster " of the lower House merely because a small majority there had passed the amendment. The new clause was accordingly rejected, and the Commons eventually accepted the situation; but Disraeli, banteringly criticizing Salisbury's use of the word " bluster," alluded to him as " a man who does not measure his phrases. He is one who is a great master of gibes and flouts and jeers." From the middle of 1876 the Government was occupied with foreign affairs. In regard to the stages of Eastern fever through which the nation passed between the occurrence of the Bulgarian "atrocities" and the signature of ™e the Treaty of Berlin, the part played by Salisbury qulsttoa. was considerable. The excesses of the Bashi-Bazouks took place in the early summer of 1876, and were recorded in long and highly-coloured despatches to English newspapers; presently there followed Gladstone's pamphlet on Bulgarian Horrors, his speech on Blackheath and his enunciation of a " bag-and-baggage " policy towards Turkey. The autumn went by, Servia and Montenegro declared war upon Turkey and were in imminent danger of something like extinction. On the 3ist of October Russia demanded an armistice, which Turkey granted; and Great Britain immediately proposed a conference at Constantinople, at which the powers should endeavour to make arrangements with Turkey for a genera) pacification of her provinces and of the inflammable communities adjoining. At this conference Great Britain was represented by Lord Salisbury. It met early in December, taking for its basis the British terms, namely, the status quo ante in Servia and Montenegro; a self-denying ordinance on the part of all the powers; and the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman empire, together with large administrative reforms assured by guarantees. General Ignatieff , the Russian ambassador, was effusively friendly with the British envoy; but though the philo-Turkish party in England professed themselves scandalized, Salisbury made no improper concessions to Russia, and departed in no way from the agreed policy of the British 74 SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF Cabinet. On the zoth of January the conference broke up, Turkey having declared its recommendations inadmissible; and Europe withdrew to await the inevitable declaration of war. Very early in the course of that war the intentions of Great Britain were clearly indicated in a despatch of Lord Derby to the British representative at St Petersburg, which announced that so long as the struggle concerned Turkish interests alone Great Britain would be neutral, but that such matters as Egypt, the Suez Canal, the regulations affecting the passage of the Dardanelles, and the possession of Constantinople itself would be regarded as matters to which she could not be indifferent. For some nine months none of these British interests appeared to be threatened, nor had Lord Salisbury's own department to concern itself very directly with the progress of the belligerents. Once or twice, indeed, the Indian secretary committed himself to statements which laid him open to a good deal of attack, as when he rebuked an alarmist by bidding him study the Central Asian question " in large maps. " But with the advance of Russia through Bulgaria and across the Balkans, British anxiety grew. In mid-December explanations were asked from the Russian Government as to their intentions with regard to Constantinople. On the 23rd of January the Cabinet ordered the fleet to sail to the Dardanelles. Lord Carnarvon resigned, and Lord Derby handed in his resignation, but withdrew it. The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on the 3rd of March; and three weeks later, when its full text became known, the Succeed* Cabinet decided upon measures which finally induced Lord Derby Lord Derby, at the end of the month, to retire from "latter" the F^'S11 Office, his place being immediately filled by Lord Salisbury. The new foreign secretary at once issued the famous " Salisbury circular" to the British representatives abroad, which appeared in the newspapers on the 2nd of April. This elaborate and dignified State paper was at once a clear exposition of British policy, and practically an invitation to Russia to reopen the negotiations for a European congress. These negotiations, indeed, had been proceeding for several weeks past; but Russia having declared that she would only discuss such points as she pleased, the British Cabinet had withdrawn, and the matter for the time was at an end. The bulk of the document consisted of an examination of the Treaty of San Stefano and its probable effects, Lord Salisbury justifying such an examination on the ground that as the position of Turkey and the other countries affected had been settled by Europe in the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the powers which signed t hat treaty had the right and the duty to see that no modifications of it should be made without their consent. The effect of the circular was great and immediate. At home the Conservatives were encouraged, and many moderate Liberals rallied to the Eastern policy of the Govern- COO//YM. ment. Abroad it seemed as if the era of divided councils was over, and the Russian Government promptly recognized that the circular meant either a congress or war with Great Britain. For the latter alternative it was by no means prepared, and very soon negotiations were reopened, which led to the meeting of the congress at Berlin on the i3th of June. The history of that famous gathering and of its results is narrated under EUROPE. Lord Beaconsfield on two or three subsequent occasions referred to the important part that his colleague had played in the negotiations, and he was not using merely the language of politeness. Rumours had appeared in the London press as to a supposed Anglo-Russian agreement that had been signed between Salisbury and the Russian ambassador, Count Shuvaloff, and these rumours or statements were described by the foreign secretary in the House of Lords, just before he left for Berlin, as " wholly unauthentic." But on the I4th of June what purported to be the full text of the agreement was published by the Globe newspaper through a certain Charles Marvin, at that time employed in occasional transcribing work at the Foreign Office, and afterwards known by some strongly anti-Russian books on the Central Asian question. Besides the general inconvenience of the disclosure, the agreement, which stipulated that Batum and Kars might be annexed by Russia, made it impossible for the congress to insist upon Russia entirely withdrawing her claim to Batum, though at the time of the meeting of the congress it was known to some of the negotiators that she was not unwilling to do so. In one respect Salisbury's action at the congress was unsuccessful. Much as he disliked Gladstone's sentimentalism, he was not without a certain sentimentalism of his own, and at the Berlin Congress this took the form of an unexpected and, as it happened, useless pushing of the claims of Greece. But in the main Salisbury must be held to deserve, almost equally with his great colleague, the credit for the Berlin settlement. Great, however, as was the work done at Berlin, and marked the relief to all Europe which was caused by the signing of the treaty, much work, and of no pleasant kind, remained for the British Foreign Office and for the Indian Government before the Beaconsfield parliament ended and the Government had to render up its accounts to the nation. Russia, foreseeing a possible war with Great Britain, had during the spring of 1878 redoubled her activity in Central Asia, and, almost at the very time that the treaty was being signed, her mission was received at Kabul by the Amir Sher Ali. Out of the Amir's refusal to receive a counterbalancing British mission there grew the Afghan War; and though he had ceased to control the India Office, Salisbury was naturally held responsible for some of the preliminary steps which, in the judgment of the Opposition, had led to these hostilities. But the Liberals entirely failed to fix upon Salisbury the blame for a series of events which was generally seen to be inevitable. A defence of the foreign policy of the Government during the year which followed the Berlin Treaty was made by Salisbury in a speech at Manchester (October 1879), which had a great effect throughout Europe. In it he justified the occupation of Cyprus, and approved the beginnings of a league of central Europe for preserving peace. In the spring of 1880 the general election overthrew Beacons- field's Government and replaced Gladstone in power, and the country entered upon five eventful years, which were Leader to see the consolidation of the Parnellite party, the of Con- reign of outrage in Ireland, disasters in Zululand and *crv««ve the Transvaal, war in Egypt, a succession of costly mistakes in the Sudan, and the final collapse of Gladstone's Government on a trifling Budget question. The defeat of 1880 greatly depressed Beaconsfield, who till then had really believed in that " hyperborean " theory upon which he had acted in 1867 — the theory that beyond and below the region of democratic storm and violence was to be found a region of peaceful conser- vatism and of a dislike of change. After the rude awakening of April 1880 Beaconsfield seems to have lost heart and hope, and to have ceased to believe that wealth, birth and education would count for much in future in England. Salisbury, who on Beacons- field's death a year later was chosen, after the claims of Cairns had been withdrawn, as leader of the Conservative peers (Sir Stafford Northcote continuing to lead the Opposition in the lower House), was not so disposed to counsels of despair. After the Conservative reaction had come in 1886, he was often taunted with pessimism as regards the results, and he certainly spoke on more than one occasion in a way which appeared to justify the caricatures which appeared of him in the Radical press in his character of Hamlet; but in the days of Liberal ascendancy Salisbury was confident that the tide would turn. We may pass briefly over the years of Opposition between 1880 and 1885; the only policy that could then wisely be followed by the Con- servative leaders was that of giving their opponents sufficient rope. In 1884 a new Reform Bill was introduced, extending household suffrage to the counties; this was met in the Lords by a resolution, moved by Cairns, that the peers could not pass it unaccompanied by a Redistribution Bill. The Government, therefore, withdrew their measure. In the summer and autumn there was a good deal of agitation; but in November a redistribu- tion scheme was settled between the leaders of both parties, and the Bill passed. When, in the summer of 1885, Gladstone resigned, it became necessary for the country to know whether Salisbury or Northcote was the real Conservative leader; and SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF 75 Minister, ISSS. the Queen settled the matter by at once sending for Lord Salis- bury, who became prime minister for the first time in 1885. The " Forwards " among the Conservatives, headed by Lord Randolph Churchill, brought so much pressure to bear that Northcote was induced to enter the House of Lords as earl of Iddesleigh, while Sir Michael Hicks Beach was made leader of the House of Commons, Lord Randolph Churchill secretary for India, and Mr Arthur Balfour president of the Local Government Board. The new Government had only to prepare for the general election in the autumn. The ministerial programme was put forward by Salisbury on the 7th of October in an important speech addressed to the Union of Conservative Associations assembled at Newport, in Monmouthshire; and in this he outlined large reforms in local government, poured scorn upon Mr Chamberlain's Radical policy of " three acres and a cow," but promised cheap land transfer, and opposed the disestablishment of the Church as a matter of life or death to the Conservative party. In this Lord Salisbury was declaring war against what seemed to be the danger should Mr Chamberlain's " unauthorized programme " succeed; while the comparative slightness of his references to Ireland showed that he had no more suspicion than anybody else of the event which was about to change the whole face of British politics, to break up the Liberal party and to change the most formidable of the advanced Radicals into an ally and a colleague. The general election took place, and there were returned to parliament 335 Liberals, 249 Conservatives and 86 Home Rulers; so that if the last two parties had combined, they would have exactly tied with the Liberals. The Conservative Government met parliament, and after a short time were put into a minority of 79 on a Radical land motion, brought in by Mr Chamberlain's henchman, Mr Jesse Collings. Mr Gladstone's Unionism- ret-urn to office, and his announcement of a Bill giving Prime ' a separate parliament to Ireland, were quickly followed Minister, by the secession of the Unionist Liberals; the defeat of the Bill; an appeal to the country; and the return of the Unionist party to power with a majority of 1 18. Salisbury at once offered to make way for Lord Hartington, but the suggestion that the latter should form a Government was declined; and the Conservatives took office alone, with an Irish policy which might be summed up, perhaps, in Salisbury's words as " twenty years of resolute government." For a few months, until just before his sudden death on the I2th of January 1887, Lord Iddesleigh was foreign secretary; but Salisbury, who meantime had held the post of lord privy seal, then returned to the Foreign Office. Meanwhile the increasing friction between him and Lord Randolph Churchill, who, amid many qualms on the part of more old-fashioned Conservatives, had become chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons, had led to the latter's resignation, which, to his own surprise, was accepted; and from that date Salisbury's effective primacy in his own party was unchallenged. Only the general lines of Salisbury's later political career need here be sketched. As a consequence of the practical 1886-1902. m°nopoly of political power enjoyed by the Unionist party after the Liberal disruption of 1886 — for even in the years 1892-1895 the situation was dominated by the permanent Unionist majority in the House of Lords — Salisbury's position became unique. These were the long-looked-for days of Conservative reaction, of which he had never despaired. The situation was complicated, so far as Salisbury personally was concerned, by the coalition with the Liberal Unionists, which was confirmed in 1895 by the inclusion of the duke of Devonshire, Mr Chamberlain, and other Liberal Unionists in the Cabinet. But though it appeared anomalous that old antagonists like Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain should be working together in the same ministry, the prime minister's position was such that he could disregard a superficial criticism which paid too little heed to his political faculty and his patriotic regard for the requirements of the situation. Moreover, the practical work of reconciling Conservative traditions with domestic reform depended rather on Salisbury's nephew, Mr Balfour, who led the House of Commons, than on Salisbury, who devoted himself almost entirely to foreign affairs. The new Conservative move- ment, moreover, in the country at large, was, in any case, of a more constructive type than Salisbury himself was best fitted to lead, and he was not the real source of the political inspiration even of the Conservative wing of the Unionist party during this period. He began to stand to some extent outside party and above it, a moderator with a keenly analytic and rather sceptical mind, but still the recognized representative of the British empire in the councils of the world, and the trusted adviser of his sovereign. Though himself the last man to be selected as the type of a democratic politician — for his references to extensions of popular government, even when made by his own party, were full of mild contempt — Salisbury gradually acquired a higher place in public opinion than that occupied by any contemporary statesman. His speeches — which, though carelessly composed, continued to blaze on occasion with their old fire and their some- what mordant cynicism — were weightier in tone^ and became European events. Without the genius of Disraeli or the personal magnetism of Gladstone, he yet inspired the British public with a quiet confidence that under him things would not go far wrong, and that he would not act rashly or unworthily of his country. Even political opponents came to look on his cautious and balanced conservatism, and his intellectual aloofness from interested motives or vulgar ambition, as standing between them and something more distasteful. Moreover, in the matter of foreign affairs his weight was supreme. He had lived to become, as was indeed generally recognized, the most experienced working diplomatist in Europe. His position in this respect was shown in nothing better than in his superiority to criticism. In foreign affairs many among his own party regarded him as too much inclined to " split the difference " and to make " grace- ful concessions " — as in the case of the cession of Heligoland to Germany — in which it was complained that Great Britain got the worst of the bargain. But though occasionally, as in the with- drawal of British ships from Port Arthur in 1898, such criticism became acute, the plain fact of the preservation of European peace, often in difficult circumstances, reconciled the public to his conduct of affairs. His patience frequently justified itself, notably in the case of British relations with the United States, which were for a moment threatened by President Cleveland's message concerning Venezuela in 1895. And though his loyalty to the European Concert in connexion with Turkey's dealings with Armenia and Crete in 1895-1898 proved irritatingly in- effectual— the pace of the concert, as Lord Salisbury explained, being rather like that of a steam-roller- — no alternative policy could be contemplated as feasible in any other statesman's hands. Salisbury's personal view of the new situation created by the methods of the sultan of Turkey was indicated not only by a solemn and unusual public warning addressed to the sultan in a speech at Brighton, but also by his famous remark that in the Crimean War Great Britain had " put her money on the wrong horse. " Among his most important strokes of diplomacy was the Anglo-German agreement of 1890, delimiting the British and German spheres of influence in Africa. The South African question from 1896 onwards was a matter for the Colonial Office, and Salisbury left it in Mr Chamberlain's hands. A peer premier must inevitably leave many of the real problems of democratic government to his colleagues in the House of Commons. In the Upper House Lord Salisbury was paramount. Yet while vigorously opposing the Radical agitation for the abolition of the House of Lords, he never interposed a non possumus to schemes of reform. He was always willing to consider plans for its improvement, and in May 1888 himself introduced a bill for reforming it and creating life peers; but he warned reformers that the only result must be to make the House stronger. To abolish it, on the other hand, would be to take away a necessary safeguard for protecting " Philip drunk " by an appeal to " Philip sober. " Lord Salisbury suffered a severe loss by the death in 1900 of his wife, whose influence with her husband had been great, as her devotion had been unswerving. Her protracted illness was 76 SALISBURY, IST EARL OF one among several causes, including his own occasional ill-health, which after 1895 made him leave as much as possible of the work of political leadership to his principal colleagues — Mr Arthur Balfour more than once acting as foreign secretary for several weeks while his uncle stayed abroad. But for some years it was felt that his attempt to be both prime minister and foreign secretary was a mistake; and after the election of 1900 Salisbury handed over the seals of the foreign office to Lord Lansdowne, remaining himself at the head of the government as lord privy seal. In 1902, upon the conclusion of peace in South Africa, he felt that the time had come to retire from office altogether; and on the nth of July his resignation was accepted by the king, and he was succeeded as prime minister by Mr Arthur Balfour. From this moment he remained in the political background, and his ill-health gradually increased. He died at Hatfield on the zznd of August 1903, and was succeeded in the marquessate by his eldest son Lord Cranborne (b. 1861), who entered the house of commons for the Darwen division of Lancashire (1885- 1892) and since 1893 had been member for Rochester. The new marquess had been under-secretary for foreign affairs since 1900, and in October 1903 he became lord privy seal in Mr Balfour's ministry. Of the other four sons, Lord Hugh Cecil (b. 1869) became a prominent figure in parliament as Conserva- tive member for Greenwich (1895-1906), first as an ardent and eloquent High Churchman in connexion with the debates on education, &c., and then as one of the leaders of the Free-Trade Unionists opposing Mr Chamberlain; and his elder brother Lord Robert Cecil (b. 1864), who had at first devoted himself to the bar and become a K.C., entered parliament in 1906 for Maryle- bone, holding views in sympathy with those of Lord Hugh, who had been defeated through the opposition of a Tariff Reform Unionist in a triangular contest at Greenwich, which gave the victory to the Radical candidate. In the elections of January 1910 Lord Robert Cecil resigned his candidature for Marylebone, owing to' the strong opposition of the Tariff Reformers, which threatened to divide the party and lose the seat; he stood for Blackburn as a Unionist Free Trader and was defeated. On the other hand Lord Hugh Cecil was returned for Oxford University in place of the Rt. Hon. J. G. Talbot. Lord Hugh's candidature, which was announced in 1909 simultaneously with the resignation of the sitting member, was opposed by many who disagreed with his fiscal views and his attitude on Church questions; but it was found that he had the support of the great majority of the electors, and he was ultimately returned un- opposed. ( H. CH. ) SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, IST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612), English lord treasurer, the exact year of whose birth is unrecorded, was the youngest son of William Cecil, ist Lord Burghley, and of his second wife Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, of Gidea Hall in Essex. He was educated in his father's house and at Cambridge University. In 1584 he was sent to France, and was returned the same year to parliament, and again in 1586, as member for Westminster. In 1588 he accompanied Lord Derby in his mission to the Netherlands to negotiate peace with Spain, and sat in the parliamentof 1588, and in the assemblies of 1593, 1597 and 1601 for Hertfordshire. About 1589 he appears to have entered upon the duties of secretary of state, though he did not receive the official appointment till 1596. On the 20th of May 1591 he was knighted, and in August sworn of the privy council. In 1597 he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1598 despatched on a mission to Henry IV. of France, to prevent the impending alliance between that country and Spain. The next year he succeeded his father as master of the court of wards. On Lord Burghley's death on the 4th of August both Essex and Bacon desired to succeed him in the supreme direction of affairs, but the queen preferred the son of her last great minister. On Essex's disgrace, consequent on his sudden and unauthorized abandonment of his command in Ireland, Cecil's conduct was worthy of high praise. " By employing his credit with Her Majesty in behalf of the Earl," wrote John Petit (June 14, 1600), " he has gained great credit to himself both at home and abroad." At this period began Cecil's secret correspondence with James in Scotland. Hitherto Cecil's enemies had persuaded James that the secretary was unfavourable to his claims to the English throne. An under- standing was now effected by which Cecil was able to assure James of his succession, ensure his own power and predominance in the new reign against Sir Walter Raleigh and other competitors, and secure the tranquillity of the last years of Elizabeth, the conditions demanded by him being that all attempts of James to obtain parliamentary recognition of his title should cease, that an absolute respect should be paid to the queen's feelings, and that the communications should remain a profound secret. Writing later in the reign of James, Cecil says: " If Her Majesty had known all I did, how well these (? she) should have known the innocency and constancy of my present faith, yet her age and orbity, joined to the jealousy of her sex, might have moved her to think ill of that which helped to preserve her."1 Such was the nature of these secret communications, which, while they aimed at securing for Cecil a fresh lease of power in the new reign, conferred undoubted advantages on the country. Owing to Cecil's action, on the death of Elizabeth on the 24th of March 1603, James was proclaimed king, and took possession of the throne without opposition. Cecil was continued in his office, was created Baron Cecil of Essendon in Rutlandshire on the i3th of May, Viscount Cranborne on the 2oth of August 1604, and earl of Salisbury on the 4th of May 1605. He was elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge in February 1601, and obtained the Garter in May 1606. Meanwhile Cecil's success had completed the discontent of Raleigh, who, exasperated at his dismissal from the captaincy of the guard, became involved — whether innocently or not is uncertain — in the treasonable conspiracy known as the " Bye Plot." Cecil took a leading part in his trial in July 1603, and, though probably convinced of his guilt, endeavoured to ensure him a fair trial and rebuked the attorney-general, Sir Edward Coke, for his harshness towards the prisoner. On the 6th of May 1608 the office of lord treasurer was added to Salisbury's other appointments, and the whole conduct of public affairs was placed solely in his hands. His real policy is not always easy to distinguish, for the king con- stantly interfered, and Cecil, far from holding any absolute or continuous control, was often not even an adviser but merely a follower, simulating approval of schemes opposed to his real judgment. In foreign affairs his aim was to preserve the balance of power between France and Spain, and to secure the independ- ence of the Netherlands from either state. He also hoped, like his father, to make England the head of the Protestant alliance abroad; and his last energies were expended in effecting the marriage in 1612 of the princess Elizabeth, James's daughter, with the Elector Palatine. He was in favour of peace, preoccupied with the state of the finances at home and the decreasing revenue, and, though sharing Raleigh's dislike of Spain, was instrumental in making the treaty with that power in 1604. In June 1607 he promised the support of the government to the merchants who complained of Spanish ill-usage, but declared that the commons must not meddle with questions of peace and war. In 1611 he disapproved of the proposed marriage between the prince of Wales and the Infanta. His bias against Spain and his fidelity to the national interests render, therefore, his accept- ance of a pension from Spain a surprising incident in his career. At the conclusion of the peace in 1604 the sum Cecil received was £1000, which was raised the following year to £1500; while in 1609 he demanded an augmentation and to be paid for each piece of information separately. If. as has been stated,2 he received a pension also from France, it is not improbable that, like his contemporary Bacon, who accepted presents from suitors on both sides and still gave an independent decree, Cecil may have maintained a freedom from corrupting influences, while his acceptance of money as the price of information concerning the intentions of the government may have formed 1 Correspondence of King James VI. of Scotland with Sir R. Cecil, ed. by J. Bruce (Camden Soc., 1861), p. xl. 1 Gardiner, History of England, i. 214. SALISBURY, IST EARL OF 77 part of a general policy of cultivating good relations with the two great rivals of England (one advantage of which was the communication of plots formed against the government), and of maintaining the balance of power between them. It is difficult , however, in the absence of complete information, to understand the exact nature and signification of these strange relations. As lord treasurer Salisbury showed considerable financial ability. During the year preceding his acceptance of that office the expenditure had risen to £500,000, leaving, with an ordinary revenue of about £320,000 and the subsidies voted by parliament, a yearly deficit of £73,000. Lord Salisbury took advantage of the decision by the judges in the court of exchequer in Bates's case in favour of the king's right to levy impositions; and (on the 28th of July 1608) imposed new duties on articles of luxury and those of foreign manufacture which competed with English goods, while lowering the dues on currants and tobacco. By this measure, and by a more careful collection, the ordinary income was raised to £460,000, while £700,000 was paid off the debt, leaving at the beginning of 1610 the sum of £300,000. This was a substantial reform, and if, as has been stated, the " total result of Salisbury's financial administration " was " the halving of the debt at the cost of doubling the deficiency," the failure to secure a permanent improvement must be ascribed to the extravagance of James, who, disregarding his minister's entreaties and advice, continued to exceed his income by £149,000. But a want of statesmanship had been shown by Salisbury in forcing the king's legal right to levy impositions against the remonstrances of the parliament. In the " great contract," the scheme now put forward by Salisbury for settling the finances, his lack of political wisdom was still more apparent. The Commons were to guarantee a fixed annual subsidy, on condition of the abandonment of impositions and of the redress of grievances by the king. An unworthy and undignified system of higgling and haggling was initiated between the crown and the parlia- ment. Salisbury could only attribute the miscarriage of his scheme to the fact " that God did not bless it." But Bacon regarded it with severe disapproval, and in the parliament of 1613, after the treasurer's death, he begged the king to abandon these humiliating and dangerous bargainings, " that your majesty do for this parliament put off the person of a merchant and contractor and rest upon the person of a king." In fact, the vicious principle was introduced that a redress of grievances could only be obtained by a payment of subsidies. The identity of interests between the crown and the nation which had made the reign of Elizabeth so glorious, and which she herself had consummated on the occasion of her last public appearance by a free and voluntary concession of these same impositions, was now destroyed, and a divergence of interests, made patent by vulgar bargaining, was substituted which stimulated the disastrous struggle between sovereign and people, and paralysed the national development for two generations. This was scarcely a time to expect any favours for the Roman Catholics, but Salisbury, while fearing that the Roman Church in England would become a danger to the state, had always been averse from prosecution for religion, and he attempted to dis- tinguish between the large body of law-abiding and loyal Roman Catholics and those connected with plots and intrigues against the throne and government, making the offer in October 1607 that if the pope would excommunicate those that rebelled against the king and oblige them to defend him against invasion, the fines for recusancy would be remitted and they would be allowed to keep priests in their houses. This was a fair measure of toleration. His want of true statesmanship was shown with regard to the Protestant Nonconformists, towards whom his attitude was identical with that afterwards maintained by Laud, and the same ideal pursued, namely that of material and outward conformity, Salisbury employing almost the same words as the archbishop later, that " unity in belief cannot be preserved unless it is to be found in worship."2 ' Bacon's disparaging estimate of his cousin and rival was 1 Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 276. * Gardiner, History of England, i. 199. probably tinged with some personal animus, and instigated by the hope of recommending himself to James as his successor; but there is little doubt that his acute and penetrating description of Salisbury to James as one " fit to prevent things from growing worse but not fit to make them better," as one " greater in operatione than in opere," is a true one.3 Elsewhere Bacon accuses him "of an artificial animating of the negative " — in modern language, of official obstruction and " red tape." But in one instance at least, when he advised James not to press forward too hastily the union of England and Scotland, a measure which especially appealed to Bacon's imagination and was ardently desired by him, Salisbury showed a prudence and judgment superior to his illustrious critic. It can scarcely be denied that he rendered substantial services to the state in times of great difficulty and perplexity, and these services would probably have been greater and more permanent had he served a better king and in more propitious times. Both Elizabeth and James found a security in Salisbury's calm good sense, safe, orderly official mind and practical experience of business, of which there was no guarantee in the restlessness of Essex, the enterprise of Raleigh or the speculation of Bacon. On the other hand, he was neither guided nor inspired by any great principle or ideal, he contributed nothing towards the settlement of the great national problems, and he precipitated by his ill-advised action the disastrous struggle between crown and parliament. Lord Salisbury died on the 24th of May 1612, at the parsonage house at Marlborough, while returning to London from taking the waters at Bath. During his long political career he had amassed a large fortune, besides inheriting a considerable portion of Lord Burghley's landed estate. In 1607 he exchanged, at the king's request, his estate of Theobalds in Hertfordshire for Hatfield. Here he built the magnificent house of which he himself conceived the plans and the design, but which he did not live to inhabit, its completion almost coinciding with his death. In person and figure he was in strange contrast with his rivals at court, being diminutive in stature, ill-formed and weak in health. Elizabeth styled him her pygmy; his enemies delighted in vilifying his " wry neck," " crooked back" and " splayfoot," and in Bacon's essay on " Deformity," it was said, " the world takes notice that he paints out his little cousin to the life."4 Molin, the Venetian ambassador in England, gives a similar description of his person, but adds that he had "a noble countenance and features."' Lord Salisbury wrote The State and Dignitie of a Secretaire of Estate's Place (publ. 1642, reprinted in Harleian Miscellany, ii. and Somers Tracts (1809), v.; see also Harleian MSS. 305 and 354), and An Answer to Certain Scandalous Papers scattered abroad under Colour of a Calholick Admonition (1606), justifying his attitude towards recusants after the discovery of the Gun- powder Plot (Harl. Misc. ii.; Somers Tracts, v.). He married Elizabeth, daughter of William Brooke, sth Baron Cobham, by whom, besides one daughter, he had William (1591-1668), his successor as 2nd earl. No complete life of Robert Cecil has been attempted, but the materials for it are very extensive, including Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, Marquis of Salisbury's MSS. (superseding former reports in the series), from which MSS. selections were published in 1740 by S. Haynes, by Wm. Murdin in 1759, by John Bruce, in The Corre- spondence of King James VI. with Sir Robert Cecil, in 1861 (Camden Society), and by Ed. Lodge, in Illustrations of English History, in 1838. The 2nd earl of Salisbury, who sided with the parliament during the Civil War and represented his party in negotiations with the king at Uxbridge and at Newport, was succeeded by his grandson James (1648-1683) as 3rd earl. James's descendant, James, the 7th earl (1748-1823), who was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1783 to 1804, was created marquess of Salisbury in 1789. ' His son and successor, James Brownlow William, the 2nd marquess (1791-1868), married Frances Mary, daughter of Bamber Gascoyne of Childwall Hall, Lancashire, and took the name of Gascoyne before that of Cecil. He was lord privy seal in 1852 and lord president of the council in 1858- 1859; his son and heir was the famous prime minister. * Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 278 note, 279. 4 Chamberlain to Carleton, Birch's Court of King James, i. 214. 6 Col. of State Papers: Venetian, x. 515. SALISBURY, 4TH EARL OF— SALISBURY SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4x11 EARL OF (1388-1428), was son of John, the third earl, who was executed in 1400 as a supporter of Richard II. Thomas was granted part of his father's estates and summoned to parliament in 1409, though not fully restored till 1421. He was present throughout the campaign of Agincourt in 1415, and at the naval engagement before Harfleur in 1416. In the expedition of 1417-18 he served with increasing distinction, and especially at the siege of Rouen. During the spring of 1419 he held an independent command, capturing Fecamp, Honfleur and other towns, was appointed lieutenant-general of Normandy, and created earl of Perche. In 1420 he was in chief command in Maine, and defeated the Marechal de Rieux near Le Mans. When Henry V. went home next year Salisbury remained in France as the chief lieutenant of Thomas, duke of Clarence. The duke, through his own rash- ness, was defeated at Bauge on the 2ist of March 1421. Salisbury came up with the archers too late to retrieve the day,but recovered the bodies of the dead, and by a skilful retreat averted further disaster. He soon gathered a fresh force, and in June was able to report to the king " this part of your land stood in good plight never so well as now." (Foedera, x. 131). Salisbury's success in Maine marked him out as John of Bedford's chief lieutenant in the war after Henry's death. In 1423 he was appointed governor of Champagne, and by his dash and vigour secured one of the chief victories of the war at Cravant on the 3oth of July. Subsequent operations completed the conquest of Champagne, and left Salisbury free to join Bedford at Verneuil. There on the 1 7th of August, 1424, it was his " judgment and valour " that won the day. During the next three years Salisbury was employed on the Norman border and in Maine. After a year's visit to England he returned to the chief command in the field in July, 1428. Against the judgment of Bedford he determined to make Orleans his principal objective, and began the siege on the 1 2th of October. Prosecuting it with his wonted vigour he stormed Tourelles, the castle which protected the southern end of the bridge across the Loire, on the 24th of October. Three days later whilst surveying the city from a window in Tourelles he was wounded by a cannon-shot, and died on the 3rd of November 1428. Salisbury was the most skilful soldier on the English side after the death of Henry V. Though employed on diplomatic missions both by Henry V. and Bedford, he took no part in politics save for a momentary support of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, during his visit to England in 1427-1428. He was a patron of John Lydgate, who presented to him his book The Pilgrim (now Harley MS. 4826, with a miniature of Salisbury, engraved in Strutt's Regal Antiquities). By his first wife Eleanor Holand, daughter of Thomas, earl of Kent, Salisbury had an only daughter Alice, in her right earl of Salisbury, who married Richard Neville, and was mother of Warwick the King- maker. His second wife Alice was grand-daughter of Geoffrey Chaucer, and after his death married William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk. The chief accounts of Salisbury's campaigns are to be found in the Gesta Henrici Quinti, edited by B. Williams for the Eng. Hist. Soc. (London, 1850) in the Vita Henrici Quinti (erroneously attributed to Thomas of Elmham), edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); the Chronique of E. de Monstrelet, edited by L. D. d'Arcq (Paris, 1857- 1862) ; the Chroniques of Jehan de Waurin, edited by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy (London, 1864-1801); and the Chronique de la Pucette of G. Cousinot, edited by Vallet de Viriville (Pans, 1859). For modern accounts see Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (Oxford, 1892); and C. Oman, Political History of England, 1377- 1485 (London, 1906). (C L. K.) SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESP£E), EARL OF (d. 1226), was an illegitimate son of Henry II. In 1198 he received from King Richard I. the hand of Isabella, or Ela (d. 1 261), daughter and heiress of William, earl of Salisbury, and was granted this title with the lands of the earldom. He held many high offices under John, and commanded a section of the English forces at Bouvines (1214), when he was made a prisoner. He remained faithful to the royal house except for a few months in 1216, when John's cause seemed hopelessly lost. He was also a supporter of Hubert de Burgh. In 1225 he went on an expedition to Gascony, being wrecked on the Isle of Re on the return voyage. The hardships of this adventure undermined his health, and he died at Salisbury on the 7th of March 1226, and was buried in the cathedral there. The eldest of Longsword's four sons, William (£.1212-1250) did not receive his father's earldom, although he is often called earl of Salisbury. In 1247 he led the English crusaders to join the French at Damietta and was killed in battle with the Saracens in February 1250. SALISBURY, a township of Litchfield county, in the north- western corner of Connecticut, U.S.A. Pop. (1910) 3522. Area, about 58 sq. m. Salisbury is served by the Central New England, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. In the township are several villages, including Salisbury, Lakeville, Lime Rock, Chapinville and Ore Hill. Much of the township is hilly, and Bear Mountain (2355 ft.), near the Massachusetts line, is the highest elevation in the state. The Housatonic river forms the eastern boundary. The township is a summer resort. In it are the Scoville Memorial Library (about 8000 volumes in 1910); the Hotchkiss preparatory school (opened in 1892, for boys); the Salisbury School (Protestant Episcopal, for boys), removed to Salisbury from Staten Island in 1901 and formerly St Austin's school; the Taconic School (1896, for girls); and the Connecticut School for Imbeciles (established as a private institution in 1858). Among the manufactures are charcoal, pig-iron, car wheels and general castings at Lime Rock, cutlery at Lakeville, and knife-handles and rubber brushes at Salisbury. The iron mines are among the oldest in the country; mining began probably as early as 1731. The first settlement within the township was made in 1720 by Dutchmen and Englishmen, who in 1719 had bought from the Indians a tract of land along the Housatonic, called " Weatogue " — an Indian word said to mean " the wigwam place." In 1732 the township was surveyed with its present boundaries, and in 1738 the land (exclusive of that held under previous grants) was auctioned by the state at Hartford. In that year the present name was adopted, and in 1741 the township was incorporated. See Malcolm D. Rudd, An Historical Sketch of Salisbury, Con- necticut (New York, 1899); and Ellen S. Bartlett, "Salisbury," in The Connecticut Quarterly, vol. iv. No. 4, pp. 345 sqq. (Hartford, Conn., 1898). SALISBURY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Wiltshire, England, 83^ m. W. by S. of London, on the London and South-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 17,117. Its situation is beautiful. Viewed from the hills which surround it the city is seen to lie among flat meadows mainly on the north bank of the river Avon, which is here joined by four tributaries. The magnificent cathedral stands close to the river, on the south side of the city, the streets of which are in part laid out in squares called the " Chequers." To the north rises the bare upland of Salisbury Plain. The cathedral church of St Mary is an unsurpassed example of Early English architecture, begun and completed, save its spire and a few details, within one brief period (1220-1266). There is a tradi- tion, supported by probability, that Elias de Derham, canon of the cathedral (d. 1245), was the principal architect. He was at Salisbury in 1220-1229, and had previously taken part in the erection of the shrine of Thomas i Becket at Canterbury. The building is 473 ft. in extreme length, the length of the nave being 229 ft. 6 in., the choir 151 ft., and the lady chapel 68 ft. 6 in. The width of the nave is 82 ft. and the height 84 ft. The spire, the highest in England, measures 404 ft. (For plan, see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in England.) The cathedral, standing in a broad grassy close, consists of a nave of ten bays, with aisles and a lofty north porch, main transepts with eastern aisles, choir with aisles, lesser transepts, presbytery and lady chapel. The two upper storeys of the tower and the spire above are early Decorated. The west front, the last portion of the original building completed, bears in its rich -orna- mentation signs of the transition to the Decorated style. The perfect uniformity of the building is no less remarkable within than without. The frequent use of Purbeck marble for shafts contrasts beautifully with the delicate grey freestone which is the principal building material. In the nave is a series of monuments of much interest, which were placed here by James Wyatt, who, in an unhappy restoration of the cathedral (1782-1791), destroyed many magnificent stained-glass windows which had escaped the Reformation, and also removed two Perpendicular chapels and the detached belfry which stood to the north-west of the cathedral. One of the memorials is a SALISBURY 79 small figure of a bishop in robes. This was long connected with the ceremony of the " boy bishop," which, as practised both here and elsewhere until its suppression by Queen Elizabeth, consisted in the election of a choir-boy as " bishop during the period between St Nicholas' and Holy Innocents' Days. The figure was supposed to represent a boy who died during his tenancy of the office. But such small figures occur elsewhere, and have been supposed to mark the separate burial-place of the heart. The lady chapel is the earliest part of the original building, as the west end is the latest. The cloisters, south of the church, were built directly after its completion. The chapter-house is of the time of Edward I., a very fine octagonal example, with a remarkable series of contemporary sculptures. The library contains many valuable MSS. and ancient printed books. The diocese covers nearly the whole of Dorsetshire, the greater part of Wiltshire and very small portions of Berkshire, Hampshire, Somersetshire and Devonshire. There are three ancient parish churches: St Martin's, with square tower and spire, and possessing a Norman font and Early English portions in the choir; St Thomas's (of Canterbury), founded in 1240 as a chapel to the cathedral, and rebuilt in the i§th century; and St Edmund's, founded as the collegiate church of secular canons in 1268, but subsequently rebuilt in the Perpendicular period. The residence of the college of secular priests is occupied by the modern ecclesiastical college of St Edmund's, founded in 1873. St John's chapel, founded by Bishop Robert Bingham in the I3th century, is occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beautiful chapel attached to the St Nicholas hospital. The poultry cross, or high cross, an open hexagon with six arches and a central pillar, was erected by Lord Montacute before 1335. In the market-place is Marochetti's statue to Sidney Herbert, Lord Herbert of Lea. The modern public buildings include the court-house, market, corn exchange and theatre. A park was laid out in 1887 to commemorate the jubilee of Queen Victoria, and in the same year a statue was erected to Henry Fawcett, the economist, who was born at Salisbury. Among remaining specimens of ancient domestic architecture may be mentioned the banqueting-hall of John Halle, wool merchant, built about 1470; and Audley House, belonging also to the isth century, and repaired in 1881 as a diocesan church house. There are a large number of educational and other charities, including the bishop's grammar school, Queen Elizabeth's grammar school, the St Nicholas hospital and Trinity hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenham in 1379. Brew- ing, tanning, carpet-making and the manufacture of hardware and of boots and shoes are carried on, and there is a considerable agricul- tural trade. The city is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 1710 acres. History. — The neighbourhood of Salisbury is rich in anti- quities. The famous megalithic remains of Stonehenge (q.v.) are not far distant. From Milford Hill and Fisherton many prehistoric relics have been brought to the fine Blackmore Museum in the city. But the site most intimately associated with Salisbury is that of Old Sarum, the history of which forms the preface to that of the modern city. This is a desolate place, lying a short distance north of Salisbury, with a huge mound guarded by a fosse and earthworks. The summit is hollowed out like a crater, its rim surmounted by a rampart so deeply cut away that its inner side rises like a sheer wall of chalk 100 ft. high. Old Sarum was probably one of the chief fortresses of the early Britons and was known to the Romans as Sorbiodunum. Cerdic, founder of the West Saxon kingdom, fixed his seat there in the beginning of the 6th century. Alfred strengthened the castle, and it was selected by Edgar as a place of national assembly to devise means of checking the Danes. Under Edward the Confessor it possessed a mint. The ecclesiastical importance of Old Sarum begins with the establishment of a nunnery by Edward the Confessor. Early in the 8th century Wiltshire had been divided between the new diocese of Sherborne and that of Winchester. About 920 a bishopric had been created at Rams- bury, east of Savernake Forest ; to this Sherborne was joined in 1058 and in 1075/6 Old Sarum became the seat of a bishopric, transferred hither from Sherborne. Osmund, the second bishop, revised the form of communion service in general use, compiling a missal which forms the groundwork of the celebrated " Sarum Use." The "Sarum Breviary" was printed at Venice in 1483, and upon this, the most widely prevalent of English liturgies, the prayer-books of Edward VI. were mainly based. Osmund also built a cathedral, in the form of a plain cross, and this was traceable in the very dry summer of 183-4. Old Sarum could have afforded little room for a cathedral, bishop's palace, garrison and townsfolk. The priests complained of their bleak New S.vum. and waterless abode, and still more of its transference to the keeping of lay castellans. Soldiers and priests were at perpetual feud ; and after a licence had been granted by Pope Honorius III., it was decided to move down into the fertile Avon valley. In 1 102 the notorious bishop, Roger Poore, by virtue of his office of sheriff, obtained custody of the castle and the grant of a comprehensive charter from Henry I. which confirmed and extended the possessions of the ecclesiastical establishment, annexed new benefactions and granted perpetual freedom in markets and fairs from all tolls and customs. This was confirmed by Henry II., John, and Henry III. With the building of New Sarum in the i3th century and the transference to it of the see, Old Sarum lapsed to the crown. It has since changed hands several times, and under James I. formed part of the property of the earldom of Salisbury. By the i6th century it was almost entirely in ruins, and in 1608 it was ordered that the town walls should be entirely demolished. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 until 1832 when it was de- prived of representation by the Reform Act, the privilege of election being vested in the proprietors of certain free burgage tenures. In the I4th century the town appears to have been divided into aldermanries, the will of one John atte Stone, dated 1361, including a bequest of land within the aldermanry of Newton. In 1102 Henry I. granted a yearly fair for seven days,' on August 14 and for three days before and after. Henry III. granted another fair for three days from June 28, and Richard- II. for eight days from September 30. The new city, under the name of New Sarum (New Saresbury, Salisbury) immediately began to spring up round the cathedral close. A charter of Henry III. in 1227 recites the removal from Old Sarum, the king's ratification and his laying the foundation-stone of the church. It then grants and confirms to the bishops, canons and citizens, all liberties and free customs previously enjoyed, and declares New Sarum to be a free city and to constitute forever part of the bishop's demesne. During the three following centuries periodical disputes arose between the bishop and the town, ending generally in the complete submission of the latter. One of these resulted in 1472 in the grant of a new charter by Edward IV. empowering the bishop to enforce the regular election of a mayor, and to make laws for governing the town. In 1611 the city obtained a charter of incorporation from James I. under the title of " mayor and commonalty " of the city of New Sarum, the governing body to consist of a mayor, recorder and twenty- four aldermen, with power to make by-laws. This charter was renewed by Charles I. and confirmed by Cromwell in 1656. The latter recites that since the deprivation of archbishops and bishops, by parliament, the mayor and commonalty have bought certain possessions of the late bishop of New Sarum, together with fairs and markets. These it confirms, constitutes the town a city and county, subjects the close to its jurisdiction and invests the bailiff with the powers of a sheriff. In 1659 with the restoration of the bishops, the ancient charter of the city was revived and that of 1656 cancelled. In 1684 during the friction between Charles II. and the towns, Salisbury surrendered its charter voluntarily. Four years later in 1688 James II. restored to all cities their ancient charters, and the bishop continued to hold New Sarum as his demesne until 1835. The Municipal Corporations Act of that year reported that Salisbury was still governed under the charter of 1611, as modified by later ones of Charles II., James II. and Anne. In 1221 Henry III. granted the bishop a fair for two days from August 14, which in 1227 was prolonged to eight days. Two general fairs were obtained from Cromwell in 1656, on the Tuesday before^Whit-Sunday and on the Tuesday in the second week before Michaelmas. In 1792 the fairs were held on the Tuesday after January 6, on the Tuesday and Wednesday after March 2 5, on Whit-Monday, on the second Tuesday in September, on the second Tuesday after October 10, and on the Tuesday before Christmas Day; in 1888 on July 15 and October 18; and now on the Tuesdays after January 6 and October 10. A large pleasure-fair was held until recently on Whit-Monday and 8o SALISBURY— SALLUST Tuesday, but in 1888 this was reported as of bad character and it is now discontinued. A grant of a weekly market on Tuesday was obtained from Henry III. in 1227. In 1240 this privilege was being abused, a daily market being held, which was finally prohibited in 1361. In 1316 a market on Saturday was granted by Edward II. and in 1656 another on every second Tuesday by Cromwell. In 1769 a wholesale cloth market was appointed to be held yearly on August 24. In 1888 and 1891 the market days were Tuesday and Saturday. A great corn market is now held every Tuesday, a cattle market on alternate Tuesdays, and a|cheese market on the second Thursday in the month. Salisbury returned two members to parliament until 1885 when the number was reduced to one. As early as 1334 the town took part in foreign trade and was renowned for its breweries and woollen manufactories, and the latter industry continued until the i7th century, but has now entirely declined. Commercial activity gave rise to numerous confraternities amongst the various trades, such as those of the tailors, weavers and cutlers. The majority originated under Edward IV., though the most ancient — that of the tailors— was said to have been formed under Henry VI. and still existed in 1835. The manufacture of cutlery, once a flourishing industry, is now decayed. See Victoria County History. Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, History of New Sarum (1843) ; and History of Old Sarum (1843). SALISBURY, a town and the county-seat of Wicomico county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Wicomico river, about 23 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1900) 4277, including 1006 negroes; (1910) 6690. It is served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic (which has shops here), and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk railways, and by steamers on the Wicomico river, which has a channel 9 ft. deep; Salisbury is the head of navigation. Grain, vegetables and lumber are shipped along the coast. Salisbury was founded in 1732, organized as a town in 1812, and incorporated in 1854 and again in 1888. SALISBURY, a city and the county-seat of Rowan county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 120 m. W. by S. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4418; (1900) 6277 (2408 negroes); (1910) 7153. Salisbury is served by the Southern railway, which has repair shops here. It is the seat of Livingstone College (African Methodist Episcopal, removed from Concord to Salisbury in 1882, chartered 1885). There is a national cemetery here, in which 12,147 Federal soldiers are buried. The city has various manufactures and is the trade centre of the surrounding farming country. Salisbury was founded about 1753, was first incorpo- rated as a town in 1755 and first chartered as a city in 1770. During the Civil War there was a Confederate military prison here. On the I2th of April 1865 the main body of General George Stoneman's cavalry encountered near Salisbury a force of about 3000 Confederates under General William M. Gardner, and captured 1364 prisoners and 14 pieces of artillery. SALISHAN, the name of a linguistic family of North American Indian tribes, the more important of which are the Salish (Flat- heads), Bellacoola, Clallam,Colville, Kalispel, Lummi, Nisqually, Okinagan, Puyallup, Quinault, Sanpoil, Shushwap, Skokomish, Songeesh, Spokan and Tulalip. They number about 20,000, and live in the southern part of British Columbia, the coast of Oregon, and the north-west of Washington, Montana and Idaho. SALLI (Sid), a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, on the north side of the Bu Ragrag opposite Rabat (q.v). Pop. about 30,000. The shrine of Sidi Abd Allah Hasun in Salli is so sacred as to close the street in which it stands to any but Moslems. Outside the town walls there is no security for life or property. A bar at the mouth of the river excludes vessels of more than two hundred tons; steamers lie outside, communi- cating with the port by lighters of native build manned by descendants of the pirates known as "Salli Rovers." (See BARBARY PIRATES.) SALLO, DENIS DE, Sieur de la Coudraye [pseudonym Siewr d'Hedonville] (1626-1669), French writer, and founder of the first French literary and scientific journal, was born at Paris in 1626. In 1665 he published the first number of the Journal des savants. The Journal, under his direction, was suppressed after the thirteenth number, but was revived shortly afterwards. He died in Paris on the I4th of May 1669. SALLUST [GAius SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS] (86-34 B.C.), Roman historian, belonging to a well-known plebeian family, was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines. After an ill-spent youth he entered public life, and was elected tribune of the people in 52, the year in which Clodius was killed in a street brawl by the followers of Milo. Sallust was opposed to Milo and to Pompey's party and to the old aristocracy of Rome. From the first he was a decided partisan of Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 he was removed from the senate by the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher on the ground of gross immorality, the real reason probably being his friendship for Caesar. In the following year, no doubt through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated and appointed quaestor. In 46 he was praetor, and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the Pompeian party at Thapsus. As a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed governor of the province of Numidia. In this capacity he was guilty of such oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome he purchased and laid out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horli Sallustiani. He now retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature. His account of the Catiline conspiracy (De conjuratione Calilinae or Bellum Calilinarium) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum Jugurlhinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of Rome from 78-67, intended as a continuation of L. Cornelius Sisenna's work. The Catiline Conspiracy (his first published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63. Sallust adopts the usually accepted view of Catiline, and describes him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, without attempting to give any adequate explanation of his views and intentions. Catiline, it must be remembered, had supported the party of Sulla, to which Sallust was opposed. There may be truth in Mommsen's suggestion that he was particularly anxious to clear his patron Caesar of all complicity in the conspiracy. Anyhow, the subject gave him the opportunity of showing off his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose degeneracy he delighted to paint in the blackest colours. On the whole, he is not unfair towards Cicero. His Jugurthine War, again, though a valuable and interesting monograph, is not a satisfactory performance. We may assume that he had collected materials and put together notes for it during his governor- ship of Numidia. Here, too, he dwells upon the feebleness of the senate and aristocracy, too often in a tiresome, moralizing and philosophizing vein, but as a military history the work is unsatisfactory in the matter of geographical and chronological details. The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) are enough to show the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against the dictator's policy and legislation after his death. The loss of the work is to be regretted, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius, the campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates of Pontus, and the victories of the great Pompey in the East. Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero (Invectiva or Dedamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are probably the work of a rhetorician of the first century A.D., also the author of a counter-invective by Cicero. Sallust is highly spoken of by Tacitus (Annals, iii. 30) : and Quintilian (ii. 5, x. i), who regards him as superior to Livy, does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides. On the whole the verdict of antiquity was favourable to Sallust as an historian. He struck out for himself practically a new line in literature, his predecessors having been little better than mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain the connexion and meaning of events, and was a successful delineator of character. The contrast between his early life SALMASIUS— SALMERON Y ALFONSO 81 and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings was frequently made a subject of reproach against him; but there is no reason why he should not have reformed. In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-men, and to judge them severely. His model was Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. His fondness for old words and phrases, in which he imitated his contemporary Cato, was ridiculed as an affectation; but it was just this affectation and his rhetorical exaggerations that made Sallust a favourite author in the 2nd century A.D. and later. Editions and translations in various languages are numerous. Editio princeps (1470); (text) R. Dietsch (1874); H. Jordan (1887); A. Eussner (1887); (text and notes) F. D. Gerlach (1823- 1831); F. Kritz (1828-1853; ed. minor, 1856); C. H. Frotscher (1830); C. Merivale (1852); F. Jacobs, H. Wirz (1894); G. Long, revised by J. G. Frazer, with chief fragments of Histories (1884); W. W. Capes (1884); English translation by A. W. Pollard (1882). There are many separate editions of the Catilina and Jugurtha, chiefly for school use. The fragments have been edited by F. Kritz (1853) and B. Maurenbrecher (1891-1893); and there is an Italian translation (with notes) of the supposititious letters by G. Vittori (1897). On Sallust generally J. W. Lobell's Zur Beurtheilung des S. (1818) should still be consulted; there are also treatises by T. Vogel (1857) and M. Jager (1879 and 1884), T. Rambeau (1879); L. Constans, De sermone Sallustiano (1880); P. Bellezza, Dei fonti e dell' autorild storica di Sallustio (1891); and special lexicon by O. Eichert (1885). The sections in Teuffel-Schwabe's History of Roman Literature are full of information; see also bibliography of Sallust for 1878-1898 by B. Maurenbrecher in C. Bursian, Jahres- bericht iiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (1900). SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS, the Latinized name of CLAUDE SAUMAISE (1588-1653), French classical scholar, born at Semur- en-Auxois in Burgundy on the I5th of April 1588. His father, a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Casaubon. He proceeded in 1606 to the university of Heidelberg, where he devoted himself to the classics. Here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother; and his first publication (1608) was an edition of a work by NilusCabasilas, archbishop of Thessalonica, in the I4th century, against the primacy of the pope (De primatu Papae), and of a similar tract by the Cala- brian monk Barlaam (d. c. 1348). In 1609 he brought out an edition of Florus. He then returned to Burgundy, and qualified for the succession to his father's post, which he eventually lost on account of his religion. In 1620 he published Casaubon's notes on the Augustan History, with copious additions of his own. In 1623 he married Anne Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family; the union was by no means a happy one, his wife being represented as a second Xanthippe. In 1629 Salmasius produced his magnum opus as a critic, his commentary on Solinus's Polyhislor, or rather on Pliny, to whom Solinus is indebted for the most important part of his work. Greatly as this commentary may have been overrated by his con- temporaries, it is a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius learned Arabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task. After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631 he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at Leiden. Although the appointment in many ways suited him, he found the climate trying; and he was persistently attacked by a jealous clique, led by Daniel Heinsius, who as university librarian refused him access to the books he wished to consult. Shortly after his removal to Holland, he composed at the request of Prince Frederick of Nassau, his treatise on the military system of the Romans (De re militari Romanorum), which was not published until 1657. Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denuncia- tion of wigs and hair-powder, and a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money, which, although it drew down upon him many expostulations from lawyers and theologians, induced the Dutch Church to admit money-lenders to the sacrament. His treatise De primatu Papae (1645), accompanying a republication of the tract of Nilus Cabasilas, excited a warm controversy in France, but the government declined to suppress it. In November 1649 appeared the work by which Salmasius is best remembered, his Defensio regia pro Carolo I. His advice had already been sought on English and Scottish affairs, and, inclining to Presbyterianism or a modified Episcopacy, he had written against the Independents. It does not appear by whose influence he was induced to undertake the Defensio regia, but Charles II. defrayed the expense of printing, and presented the author with £100. The first edition was anonymous, but the author was universally known. A French translation which speedily appeared under the name of Claude Le Gros was the work of Salmasius himself. This celebrated work, in our day principally famous for the reply it provoked from Milton, even in its own time added little to the reputation of the author. His reply to Milton, which he left unfinished at his death, and which was published by his son in 1660, is insipid as well as abusive. Until the appearance of Milton's rejoinder in March 1651 the effect of the Defensio was no doubt considerable; and it probably helped to procure him the flattering invitation from Queen Christina which induced him to visit Sweden in 1650. Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions, but upon the appearance of Milton's book was unable to conceal her conviction that he had been worsted by his antagonist. Milton, addressing Christina herself, ascribes Salmasius's withdrawal from Sweden in 1651 to mortification at this affront, but this appears to be negatived by the warmth of Christina's subsequent letters and her pressing invitation to return. The claims of the university of Leiden and dread of a second Swedish winter seem fully adequate motives. Nor is there any foundation for the belief that Milton's invectives hastened his death, which took place on the 3rd of September 1653, from an injudicious use of the Spa waters. As a commentator and verbal critic, Salmasius is entitled to very high rank. His notes on the Augustan History and Solinus display not only massive erudition but massive good sense as well; his perception of the meaning of his author is commonly very acute, and his corrections of the text are frequently highly felicitous. His manly independence was shown in many circumstances, and the bias of his mind was liberal and sensible. He was accused of sour- ness of temper; but the charge, if it had any foundation, is extenu- ated by the wretched condition of his health. The life of Salmasius was written at great length by Philibert de la Mare, counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, who inherited his MSS. from his son. Papillon says that this biography left nothing to desire, but it has never been printed. It was, however, used by Papillon himself, whose account of Salmasius in UsBibliotheque des auteurs de Bourgogne (Dijon, 1745) is by far the best extant, and con- tains an exhaustive list of his works, both printed and in MS. There is an eloge by A. Clement prefixed to his edition of Salmasius's Letters (Leiden, 1656), and another by C. B. Morisot, inserted in his own Letters (Dijon, 1656). See also E. Haag, La France protestante, (ix. 149-173); and, for the Defensio regia, G. Masson's Life of Milton. SALMERON Y ALFONSO, NICOLAS (1838-1908), Spanish statesman, was born at Alhama la Seca in the province of Almeria, on the loth of April 1838. He was educated at Granada and became assistant professor of literature and philosophy at Madrid. The last years of the reign of Isabella II. were times of growing discontent with her bad government and with the monarchy. Salmeron joined the small party who advocated the establishment of a republic. He was director of the Opposi- tion paper La Discusion, and co-operated with Don Emilio Castelar on La Democracia. In 1865 he was named one of the members of the directing committee of the Republican party. In 1867 he was imprisoned with other suspects. When the revolution of September 1868 broke out, he was at Almeria recovering from a serious illness. Salmeron was elected to the Cortes in 1871, and though he did not belong to the Socialist party, defended its right to toleration. When Don Amadeo of Savoy resigned the Spanish crown on the nth of February 1873 Salmeron was naturally marked out to be a leader of the party which endeavoured to establish a republic in Spain. After serving as minister of justice in the Figueras cabinet, he was chosen president of the Cortes, and then, on the i8th of July 1873, president of the republic, in succession to Pi Margall. He became president at a time when the Federalist party had thrown all the south of Spain into anarchy. Salmeron was compelled to use the troops to restore order. When, however, he found that the generals insisted on executing rebels taken in arms, he resigned on the ground that he was opposed to capital punishment (7th September). He resumed his seat as president of the Cortes on the 8th of September. His successor, Castelar, was compelled to restore order by drastic means. Salmeron took part in the attack made on him in the Cortes on the 3rd of January 1874, which provoked the generals into closing the SALMON, G.— SALMON AND SALMONIDAE chamber and establishing a provisional military government Salmeron went into exile and remained abroad till 1881, when he was recalled by Sagasta. In 1886 he was elected to the Cortes as Progressive deputy for Madrid, and unsuccessfully endeavoured to combrne the jarring republican factions into a party of practical moderate views. On the i8th of April 1907 he was shot at, but not wounded, in the streets of Barcelona by a member of the more extreme Republican party. He died at Pau on the 2ist of September 1908. SALMON, GEORGE (1810-1904), British mathematician and divine, was born in Dublin on the 25th of September 1819 and educated at Trinity College in that city. Having become senior moderator in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity, he took holy orders, and was appointed regius professor of divinity in Dublin University in 1866, a position which he retained until 1888, when he was chosen provost of Trinity College. He was provost until his death on the 22nd of January 1904. As a mathematician Salmon was a fellow of the Royal Society, and was president of the mathematical and physical section of the British Association in 1878. He was a D.C.L. of Oxford and an LL.D. of Cambridge. His published mathematical works include: Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions (1862), Treatise on Conic Sections (4th ed., 1863) and Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves (2nd ed., 1873); these books are of the highest value, and have been translated into several languages. As a theologian he wrote Historical Introduction to the Study of the New Testament (1885), The Infallibility of the Church (1888), Non- Miraculous Christianity (1881) and The Reign of Law (1873)- SALMON and SALMONIDAE.1 The Salmonidae are an im- portant family of fishes belonging to the Malacopterygian Teleosteans, characterized as follows: Margin of the upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries and the maxillaries — supra- occipital in contact with the frontals, but frequently overlapped by the parietals, which may meet in a sagittal suture; opercular bones all well developed. Ribs sessile, parapophyses very short or absent; epineurals, sometimes also epipleurals, present. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic, the lower to the opisthotic; postclavicle, as usual, applied to the inner side of the clavicle. A small adipose dorsal fin. Air-bladder usually present, large. Oviducts rudimentary or absent, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before extrusion. The Salmonidae are very closely related to the Clupeidae, or herring family, from which they are principally distinguished by the position of the postclavicle and by the presence of a rayless fin on the back, at a considerable distance from the true or rayed dorsal fin; this so-called adipose fin is an easy recogni- tion-mark of this family, so far as British waters are concerned, for, if it is present in several other families, these have no repre- sentatives in the area occupied by the fresh-water salmonids, with the exception of the North American Siluridae and Percop- sidae, which are readily distinguished by the pungent spine or spines which precede the rays of the first dorsal fin. The imper- fect condition of the oviducts, quite exceptional among fishes, owing to which the large ripe eggs may be easily squeezed out of the abdomen, is a feature of great practical importance, since it renders artificial impregnation particularly easy, and to it is due the fact that the species of Salmo have always occupied the first place in the annals of fish-culture. The Salmonidae inhabit mostly the temperate and arctic zones of the northern hemisphere, and this is the case with all fresh- water forms, with one exception, Retropinna, a smelt-like fish from the coasts and rivers of New Zealand. A few deep-sea forms (Argentina, Microstoma, Nansenia, Balhylagus) are known from the Arctic ocean, the Mediterranean and the Antarctic ocean, down to 2000 fathoms. The question has been discussed whether the salmonids, so many of which live in the sea, but resort to rivers for breeding purposes, were originally marine or fresh-water. The balance of opinion is in favour of the former hypothesis, which is supported by the fact that the overwhelm- ing majority of the members of the suborder of which the salmonids form part permanently inhabit the sea. The clupeids, 1 The Latin name salmo possibly means literally " the leaper," from salire, to leap, jump. for instance, which are their nearest allies, are certainly of marine origin, as proved by their abundance in Cretaceous seas, yet a few, like the shads, ascend rivers to spawn, in the same way as the salmon does, without this ever having been adduced as evidence in favour of a fresh-water origin of the genus Clupea to which they belong. No remains older than Miocene (Osmerus, Frothy mallus, Thaumaturus) are certainly referable to this family, the various Cretaceous forms originally referred to it, such as Osmeroides and Pachyrhizodus, being now placed with the Elopidae. There is probably no other group of fishes to which so much attention has been paid as to the Salmonidae, and the species have been unduly multiplied by some writers. Perhaps not more than 80 should be regarded as valid, but some of them fall into a number of local forms which are distinguished as varieties or subspecies by some authors, whilst others would assign them full specific rank. These differences of opinion prevail whether we deal with Salmo proper or with Coregonus. Classification.— The recent genera may be arranged in five groups: The first, which includes Salmo, Brachymystax , Stenodus, Coregonus, Phylogephyra and Thymallus, has 8 to 20 branchiostegal rays, 9 to 13 rays in the ventral fin, the pyloric appendages more or less numerous (17 to 200) and breeding takes place in fresh water. The second group, ,with the single genus Argentina, is, like the follow- ing, marine, and is characterized by 6 branchiostegal rays, n to 14 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages in moderate numbers (12 to 20). The third group, genera Osmerus, Thaleichthys , Mallotus, Plecoglossus, Hypomesus, has 6 to 10 branchiostegal rays, 6 to 8 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages few (2 to i i) or rather numerous. The fourth group, genera Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus, deep-sea forms with the branchiostegal rays reduced to 3 or 4, ventral rays 8 to 10, the stomach caecal and pyloric appendages absent ; whilst the fifth group, with the genera Retropinna and Salanx, is distinguished from the preceding in having no air-bladder, branchiostegal rays 3 to 6, ventral rays 6 or 7, stomach siphonal and pyloric appendages absent. The genus Salmo, the most important from the economical and sporting points of view, is characterized by small smooth scales, which at certain seasons may become embedded in the slimy skin, a moderately high dorsal fin with 10 to 12 well-developed rays, and a large mouth provided with strong teeth, which are present not only in the jaws and on the palate, but also on the tongue, the maxillary or posterior bone of the upper jaw extends to below or beyond the eye. Young specimens (see PARR) are marked with dark vertical bars on the sides (parr-marks), which in some trout are retained throughout life, and have the caudal fin more or less deeply forked or marginate, the form of the fin changing with the age and sexual development of the fish. Adult males have the jaws more produced in front than females, and both snout and chin may become curved and hooked. As pointed out by A. Gunther, who was the first to make a profound study of the members of this genus, and especially of the British forms, there is probably no other group of fishes which offers so many difficulties to the ichthyologist with regard to the distinction of species, as well as to certain points in their life-history, the almost infinite variations which they undergo being dependent on age, sex and sexual development, food and the properties of the water. The difficulties in their study have rather been increased by the excessive multiplication of so-called specific forms. Opinions also vary as to the importance to be attached to the characters which serve to group trie principal species into natural divisions. Whilst A. Gunther admitted two genera, Salmo and Oncorhynchus, D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann go so far as to recognize five, Oncorhynchus, Salmo, Hucho, Cristivomer and Salvelinus. The latter arrangement is certainly the more logical, the difference between the first genus and the second being of rather less importance than that between the second and the third. However, considering the slightness of the distinctive characters on which these divisions are based, and the complete passage which obtains between them, the writer of this article thinks it best to maintain the genus Salmo in the wide sense, whilst retaining the divisions as subordinate divisions or sub-genera, with the following definitions: — Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 12 to 17 well-developed rays. Salmo (true salmon and trout). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 8 to 12 well-developed rays. Salvelinus (char). — Vomer boat-shaped, the shaft strongly de- Dressed behind the head, which alone is toothed, the teeth forming an isolated fascicle; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays. Hucho (huchens). — Vomer as in the preceding, but teeth forming a single arched transverse series continuous with the palatine teeth; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays. The salmon itself (Salmo salar), the type of the family, is a arge fish, attaining a length of 4 or 5 ft., and living partly in the SALMON AND SALMONIDAE sea, partly in fresh water, breeding in the latter. Fish which thus ascend rivers to spawn are called " anadromous." It may be briefly defined as of silvery coloration, with small black spots usually confined to the side above the lateral line, with the teeth on the shaft of the vomer disappearing in the adult, with 18 to 22 gill-rakers on the first branchial arch, with n or 12 well- developed rays in the dorsal fin, no to 125 scales in the lateral line, and n or 12 (exceptionally 13) between the latter and the posterior border of the adipose fin. The young, called "parr" or "samlet," characterized by a smaller mouth, the maxillary bone not extending much beyond the vertical of the centre of the eye, the presence of an alternating double or zigzag series of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, the presence of dark vertical bars on the sides of the body, together with more or less numerous small red spots, is hatched in the spring, and usually remains for about two years in the rivers, descending at the third spring to the sea, where it is known as "smolt." In the sea it soon assumes a more uniform silvery coloration and from this state, or " grilse," develops its sexual organs and re-enters rivers to breed, after which operation, much emaciated and unwholesome as food, it is known as " kelt," and returns to the sea to recuperate. It has now been ascertained by the investigations instituted in Norway by K. Dahl that the smolts, immediately after leaving the rivers, make for the open sea, and do not return to the coast until they have reached the grilse stage. Thus specimens measuring between 8 and 18 in. hardly ever fall into the hands of the angler. The salmon inhabits the North Atlantic and its tributary waters. It is known to extend as far north as Scandinavia, Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and Labrador, and as far south as the north-west of Spain and the state of Connecticut. It ascends the Rhine as far as Basel. There are land-locked forms in Scandinavia and in Canada and Maine, which are regarded by some authors as distinct species (5. hardinii from Lake Wener, 5. sebago from Sebago Lake in Maine, 5. ouananiche from Lake St John, Canada and neighbouring waters). These non- migratory forms are smaller than the typical salmon, never exceeding a weight of 25 Ib, the ouananiche, the smallest of all, rarely weighing iffi> and averaging 35. Although spending their whole life in fresh waters, the habits of these fish are very similar to those of the sea salmon, ascending tributary streams to spawn in their higher ranges, and then returning to the deep parts of the lakes, which are to them what the sea is to the anadromous salmonids. The salmon breeds in the shallow running waters of the upper streams of the rivers it ascends. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, scoops out a trough in the gravel of the bed of the stream. This she effects by lying on her side and ploughing into the gravel by energetic motions of her body. She then deposits her eggs in the trough; while she is engaged in these operations she is attended by a male, who sheds milt over the eggs as the female extrudes them, fertilization being, as in the great majority of Teleostei, external. The parent fish then fill up the trough and heap up the gravel over the eggs until these are covered to a depth of some feet. The gravel heap thus formed is called a " redd." The period of the year at which spawning takes place in the British Isles, and in similar latitudes of the northern hemisphere, varies to a certain extent with the locality, and in a given locality may vary in different years; but, with rare exceptions, spawning is confined to the period between the beginning of September and the middle of January. The eggs are spherical and non-adhesive; they are heavier than water, and are moderately tough and elastic. The size varies slightly with the age of the parent fish, those from full-sized females being slightly larger than those from very young fish. According to rough calculations made at salmon-breeding establishments, there are 25,000 eggs to a gallon ; the diameter is about a quarter of an inch. It is usually estimated that a female salmon produces about 900 eggs for each pound of her own weight; but this average is often exceeded. The time between fertilization and hatching, or the escape of the young fish from the egg-membrane, varies considerably with the temperature to which the eggs are exposed. It has been found that at a constant temperature of 41° F. the period is 97 days; but the period may be as short as 70 days and as long as 150 days without injury to the health of the embryo. It follows therefore that in the natural conditions eggs deposited in the autumn are hatched in the early spring. The newly hatched fish, or " alevin," is provided with a very large yolk-sac, and by the absorption of the yolk is nourished for some time; although its mouth is fully formed and open, it takes no food. The alevin stage lasts for about six weeks, and at the end of it the young fish is about ij in. long. The grilse, after spawning in autumn, return again to the sea in the winter or following spring, and reascend the rivers as mature spawning salmon in the following year. Both salmon and grilse after spawning are called " kelts.' The following recorded experi- ment illustrates the growth of grilse into salmon: a grilse-kelt of 2 Ib was marked on March 31, 1858, and recaptured on August 2 of the same year as a salmon of 81b. The ascent of rivers by adult salmon is not so regular as that of grilse, and the knowledge of the subject is not complete. Although salmon scarcely ever spawn before the month of September, they do not ascend in shoals just before that season; the time of ascent extends throughout the spring and summer. A salmon newly arrived in fresh water from the sea is called a clean salmon, on account of its bright, well-fed appearance; during their stay in the rivers the fish lose the brilliancy of their scales and deteriorate in condition. The time of year at which clean salmon ascend from the sea varies greatly in different rivers; and rivers are, in relation to this subject, usually denominated early or late. The Scottish rivers flowing into the German Ocean and Pentland Firth are almost all early, while those of the Atlantic slope are late. The Thurso in Caithness and the Naver in Sutherlandshire contain fresh-run salmon in December and January; the same is the case with the Tay. In Yorkshire salmon commence their ascent in July, August or September if the season is wet, but if it is dry their migration is delayed till the autumn rains set in. In all rivers more salmon ascend immediately after a spate or flood than when the river is low, and more with the flood tide than during the ebb. In their ascent salmon are able to pass obstructions, such as waterfalls and weirs of considerable height, and the leaps they make in surmounting such impediments and the persistence of their efforts are very remarkable. We reproduce here, with additions, Professor Noel Paton's summary (published first in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia) of observations on the life-history of the salmon. Important ad- vances in our knowledge of the life-history of the salmon have been made through the investigations of Professor F. Miescher on the Rhine at Basel, of Professor P. P. C. Hoek in Holland, of Mr Archer as lessee of the river Sands in Norway and as inspector of salmon fisheries for Scotland in conjunction with Messrs Gray and Tosh, and of a number of workers in the laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. With regard to the food of salmon, the enormously rapid growth of smolts to grilse and of salmon from year to year shows that they feed in the sea. In a few months a smolt will increase from a few ounces to 4 or 5 Ib; while Archer's weighings of 1 6 salmon which had been marked and recaptured in the following year showed an average gain of 36%, reckoned on from kelt stage to kelt stage. During the season of 1895 Tosh, at Berwick-on-Tweed, opened between March and August 514 fish, and found food in the stomachs of 76, or over 14% of the whole. As to the nature of the food, it was found to be as follows: — . 36 or 47% 18% H% 10% 97- Herring Crustacea, amphipods, &c 14 Sand eels 1 1 Haddock and whiting 8 Feathers and vegetable matter ... 7 Excluding the feathers and vegetable matter, which are not really of the nature of food, all the material found in the stomach was of marine origin. Hoek, out of 2000 fish examined by him, found 7 with food in the stomach, and, curiously enough, 4 of these were taken on the same day. In each case marine fish constituted the food. As to where salmon go to feed in the sea, our information is still very deficient, but the prevalence of herring in the stomach would seem to indicate that they must follow the shoals of these fish which approach the coast during the summer months. While there can be no doubt that salmon feed in the sea, the question of whether they feed in fresh water has been much debated. It is difficult for the popular mind to conceive of an active fish like the salmon subsisting for several months without food, and the fact that the fish so frequently not only takes into its mouth but actually swallows worms and various lures has still further tended to confirm many people in the conviction that salmon do feed in fresh water? In discussing the question it is well clearly to understand what is meant by feeding. It is the taking, digesting and absorbing of material of use in the economy in such quantities as to be of benefit to the individual. Accepting this definition, it may at once be said that all the evidence we possess is entirely opposed to the view that salmon feed when in fresh water. Miescher examined the stomachs of about 2000 salmon captured at Basel, about 500 m. from the mouth of the Rhine, and in only two did he find any indication of feeding. These two fish were male kelts. One contained the remains of a cyprinoid fish, and the other had a dilated stomach with an acid secretion, but no food remains. Hoek, who, as already stated, examined about 2000 fish, found food of marine origin in 7, but in none food derived from fresh water. Of the 132 stomachs of salmon from the estuaries and upper waters of Scottish rivers examined in the laboratory of the College of Physicians not one contained any food remains. The stomach of salmon captured in fresh water is collapsed and shrunken. Its mucous membrane is thrown into folds, and it contains a small amount of mucus of a neutral reaction. The intestine, which usually contains numerous SALMON AND SALMONIDAE tape- worms, is full of a greenish-yellow viscous material which, when examined under the microscope, is found to consist of mucus with shed epithelial and other cells and with masses of crystals of carbonate of lime. In no case does the microscope reveal any food remains such as fish-scales, plates of Crustacea or bristles of worms or annelids. In the fish taken in the estuaries up to the month of August the gall-bladder is distended ; in those taken later in the year it is empty. In all the fish from the upper waters the gall-bladder is empty and collapsed. According to the investigations of Hoek and of Gulland, the. lining membrane of the stomach and intestine degenerates while the fish is in the river, but the correctness of these observations has been denied by F. B. Brown and J. Kingston Barton. Gillespie finds that the activity of the digestive processes is low in fish taken from the rivers, and that micro-organisms, which would be killed by the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice were it actively secreted, flourish in the intestines of the fish from the upper waters. Those who believe that the salmon feeds in fresh water explain the fact that the stomach is always found empty by the supposition that the fish vomits any food when it is captured, and several descriptions of cases in which this has been observed might be quoted; but such observations must be accepted with caution, and the contracted state of the stomach, the absence of the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and lastly the absence of any traces of digested food remains in the contents of the intestine, negative this explanation. The question may be presented in another way. Is there any reason why the salmon should feed while in fresh water? The investigations carried on in the laboratory of the College of Physicians have definitely shown that the salmon leaves the sea with an enormous supply of nourishment stored in its muscles, and that during its sojourn in fresh water it gets its energy and builds up its rapidly growing ovaries and testes from this stored material. Briefly stated, th«"se investigations show that the supply of albuminous material and fats stored in the muscles and used while the fish is in the river is amply sufficient for the greatest requirements of the fish. The amount of energy liberated from the fats and albuminous material is 570 times more than is required to raise the fish from the level of the estuary to that of the upper waters! These analyses further show that all the materials required for the construction of the ovaries and the testes are found in sufficient quantity in the muscles, with the exception of iron, which is, however, abundantly present in the blood. It is a very common opinion that kelts feed voraciously while still in fresh water, and this has been used as an argument that they should be destroyed. It is not easy to bring forward such satis- factory evidence as has been adduced in the case of unspawned salmon, since it is illegal to kill kelts; but none of the 25 kelts procured by the Scottish Fishery Board, and examined in the College of Physicians' laboratory, contained any food, and Mr Anderson, formerly of Dunkeld, informs Professor Paton that in the old days, when kelts were habitually killed when captured, he has opened a large number and never found any trace of food in the stomach. Some fishers declare that they have seen kelts devouring salmon fry, but it is not easy to make accurate observations in deep water. According to Dr Gulland's investigations, the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestine is completely regenerated while the gall-bladder contains bile, and the digestive activity of the alimentary canal is greater than in salmon before spawning. Kelts thus appear at least to be capable of feeding. The rate of growth of the genitalia has been carefully studied by Miescher, Archer and Hoek. From January till about the end of May the growth of the ovaries is slow. In Hoek's series of obser- vations, which are the most complete, they increased from -35 to •85% of the body weight. After this they enlarge more rapidly, and by the end of August are about 3% in salmon taken at the mouth of the Tweed, about 4% in the salmon from the mouth of the Rhine and about 8% in the salmon from the Basel fisheries. By November they have risen to 20% in the Tweed and in Holland, and to 23 % in the upper reaches of the Rhine. According to Archer's observations, the development of the ovaries in grilse in the earlier months somewhat lags behind that in the salmon. The growth of the testes has been chiefly investigated by Archer and Tosh in the Tweed and by Miescher at Basel. From March to the middle of July in the Tweed these organs increase from about -ip to -35% of the weight of the fish. In July their rate of growth increases, and they reach their maximum development at the end of September, when they are about 6% of the body weight. In the Rhine in March they weigh about • I %, and they reach their maximum development of about 5% in October. What leads to the migration of salmon from sea to river and river to sea ? It is usually supposed that they come to the river to spawn; that it is the nisus generativus that drives them from the sea, where their ova will not develop, to the fresh water where develop- ment is possible. But it is found that salmon are passing from sea to river at all seasons of the year, and with their genitalia in all stages of development — some fish, running in March with ovaries only i % of the body weight, other fish not running till October with ovaries 15 or 16% of the body weight. It is difficult, then, to accept the theory that the sexual act is the governing factor. That it is a secondary factor seems to be indicated by the great run of May July Oct. Nov.1 Feb. Mar. April. and and and Kelts. June. Aug. Nov. Muscles 2481 2214 2355 2599 2210 2270 1750 946 Ovaries 23 24 24 33 47 72 545 9 Total 2504 2238 2379 2632 2257 2342 2295 955 fish in June, July and August, when the genitalia are most rapidly growing. There is one respect, however, in which all the fish leaving the sea for the river agree, and that is in the amount of stored material accumulated in their bodies. In the early running fish this material is largely confined to the muscles, but in the later coming fish it is more eqitally distributed between muscles and genitalia. The amount of stored material may be measured by the amount of solids, and if we express the results of all the fish examined in terms of fish of uniform size — loo cm. in length — the following results are obtained : — It would thus appear that, when the salmon has in the sea accumu- lated a certain definite amount of nourishment, it ceases to feed, and returns to the river irrespective of the state of its genital organs. Nutrition, and not the nisus generativus, appears to be the motive power. That the fish after spawning returns to the sea in search of food is fully recognized by all. Course of Migration. — It is well known that while salmon run all the year through in greater or lesser numbers, the run of grilse takes place in the summer months, from May to August. But it is further possible to divide the salmon into classes — the so-called winter salmon of the Rhine, large fish running from October to February, with unripe ovaries and testes; and the summer salmon, running for the most part from March to October, with genitalia more or less ripe. These summer fish are small in the early months, but increase in size as the autumn advances. The winter salmon, along with the early summer or spring fish, appear to pass directly to the upper reaches of the river, and to spawn there, while the larger late-coming fish appear to populate the lower waters. This seems to be indicated by the comparison of upper-water and estuary fish throughout the year. The period at which male and female fish enter the rivers also appears to be somewhat different. The observations of Tosh, Mtescher and Hoek show that throughout the year the female fish exceed the males in number, and, secondly, that during the earlier months of the year female fish run in much larger numbers than do male fish. It is only in September that anything like an equality between the two sexes is established. But in Great Britain it is not until the end of August that the nets are removed, and one cannot but believe that the destruction of such a very large proportion of females as are captured during the early months of the season must have a most prejudicial effect upon the breeding stock. Rate of Migration. — By a comparison of the first appearance of winter salmon and of grilse in the markets of Holland and of Basel — 500 m. up the river — Miescher gives some data for the determination of the average rate at which salmon ascend an unobstructed stream. It was found that winter salmon appeared at Basel about 54 days after their appearance in Holland, which would give a rate of passage of about ip m. per diem. From a smaller number of observations on grilse, it appears that they travel at a somewhat slower rate. It is, however, doubtful how far these figures are of value in deciding the rate at which fish pass up the lower reaches of the river. Great difficulties have been experienced in ascertaining the age and rate of growth of salmon. The practice has long ago been resorted to of " marking " salmon, the most satisfactory mark being a small oblong silver label, oxidized or blackened, bearing distinctive letters and numbers, to the dorsal fin. But of late the structure of the scales has been studied with the object of obtaining indications of the age, growth and spawning habit. H. W. Johnston in 1905 contributed an interesting paper on the subject. The scales bear concentric lines, which vary in number and relative distance according to the growth of the fish, and during the feeding periods these lines are added with more rapidity and a greater degree of separation than at other times. Johnston has endeavoured to ascertain their meaning in Tay salmon, and he has shown that the number of lines external to their last annual ring gives some clue to the time at which they left the sea; he is thus able to distinguish among ascending salmon such as are on their first return from such as have made the journey once or oftener before. The group of Pacific salmon, or king salmon, commonly desig- nated as Oncorhynchus, contains the largest and commercially the most important of the Salmonidae. They are anadromous species inhabiting the North Pacific and entering the rivers of America as well as of Asia. The best known and most valuable is the quinnat (5. quinnat), ascending the large rivers in spring and summer, spawning from July to December. They die after the breeding season is over, and never return to the sea. For the important Sal- monidae known as TROUT, CHAR,WHITEFISH,SMELT,GRAYLING,&C., see the separate articles. The huchen (5. hucho) of the Danube is an elongate, somewhat pike-like form, growing to the same size 1 Winter fish not due to spawn till following November. SALMONEUS— SALONICA as the salmon, of silvery coloration, with numerous small black dots, extending on the dorsal fin. Allied to it are 5. fluviatilis from Siberia and S. perryi or blackistoni from the northern island of Japan. The genus Stenodus is intermediate between Salmo and Cpregonus (whitefish). S. leucichthys is an anadromous species, inhabiting the Caspian Sea and ascending the Volga and the Ural; it is also found in the Arctic ocean, ascending the Ob, Lena, &c. It grows to a length of 5 ft. A second species occurs in Arctic North America; this is the " Inconnu," 5. mackenzii, from the Mackenzie river and its tributaries. The capelin (Mallotus mllosus, so called from the villous bands formed by the scales of mature males) is a salmonid of the coasts of Arctic America and north-eastern Asia; it deposits its eggs in the sand along the shores in incredible numbers, the beach becoming a quivering mass of eggs and sand. Plecoglossus, a salmonid from Japan and Formosa, is highly remarkable for its lamellar, comb-like, lateral teeth. The siel-smelts, Argentina, are deep-sea salmonids, of which examples have occasionally been taken off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Bathylagus,^ another salmonid discovered by the " Challenger " expedition, is still better adapted for life at great depths (down to 1700 fathoms), the eyes being of enormous size. AUTHORITIES. — On the systematic and life histories : A. Giinther, Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. vi. (1866) ; F. Day, British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887); F. A. Smitt, Kritisk Forteckning ofver de i Riksmuseum befintliga Salmonider (Stockholm, 1886); V. Fatio, Faune des vertebres de la Suisse, vol. v. (1890); D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, Fishes of North America, vol. i. (1896), and American Food and Game Fishes (London and New York, 1902); F. F. Kavraisky, Die Lachse der Kaukasuslander (Tiflis, 1896). On growth and migrations: Die hislochemischen und physio- logischen Arbeiten von Friedrich Miescher, Band ii., pp. 116, 192, 304, 325 (Leipzig, 1897); P. P. C. Hoek, Statische und biologische Untersuchungen an in den Niederlandern gefangenen Lachsen (Char- lottenburg, 1895) ; Annual Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland, part ii., " Report on Salmon Fisheries," Nos. II, 12, 13, 14 (1893- 1 894-95-96) ; Report of Investigations on the Life-History of the Salmon to the Fishery Board for Scotland, edited by Noel Paton, presented to parliament and published 1898; K. Dahl, Orret og unglo.hs samt lovgivningens forhold til dem (Christiania, 1902) ; H. W. Johnston, " The Scales of Tay Salmon as indicative of Age, Growth and Spawning Habit," Ann. Rep. Fish. Board, Scotland, xxiii., appendix ii. (1905). Introduction in Tasmania and New Zealand: M. Allport, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1870), pp. 14 and 750; A. Nichol, Acclimatization of the Salmonidae at the Antipodes (London, 1882); W. Arthur, " History of Fish Culture in New Zealand," Tr. N. Zeal. Inst. xiv. (1881) p. 180; P. S. Seager, " Concise History of the Acclimatization of the Salmonids in Tasmania," Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. (1888) p. I ; also R. M. Johnston, I.e. p. 27. On the salmon disease: T. H. Huxley, Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. xxii. (1882) p. 311. (G. A. B.) SALMONEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus (king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythic ancestor of the Aeolian race), grandson of Hellen and brother of Sisyphus. He removed to Elis, where he built the town of Salmone, and became ruler of the country. His subjects were ordered to worship him under the name of Zeus; he built a bridge of brass, over which he drove at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being heightened by dried skins and caldrons trailing behind, while torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. At last Zeus smote him with his thunderbolt, and destroyed the town (Apollodorus i. 9. 7; Hyginus, Fab. 60, 61; Strabo viii. p. 356; Manilius, Astronom. 5, 91; Virgil, Aen. vi. 585, with Heyne's excursus). Joseph Warton's idea that the story is introduced by Virgil as a protest against the Roman custom of deification is not supported by the general tone of the Aeneid itself. According to Frazer (Early History of the Kingship, 1905 ; see also Golden Bough, i., 1900, p. 82), the early Greek kings, who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops, were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the character of Zeus. At Crannon in Thessaly there was a bronze chariot, which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered for rain (Antigonus of Carystus, Historiae mirabiles, 15). S. Reinach (Revue archeologique, 1903, i. 154) suggests that the story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven ; hence arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of Zeus, and that the picture represented his punishment. SALOME, in Jewish history the name borne by several women of the Herod dynasty, (i) Sister of Herod the Great, who became the wife successively of Joseph, Herod's uncle, Costobar, governor of Idumaea, and a certain Alexas. (2) Daughter of Herod by Elpis, his eighth wife. (3) Daughter of Herodias by her first husband Herod Philip. She was the wife successively of Philip the Tetrarch and Aristobulus, son of Herod of Chalcis. This Salome is the only one of the three who is mentioned in the New Testament (Matt. xiv. 3 sqq.; Mark vi. i7sqq.) and only in connexion with the execution of John the Baptist. Herod Antipas, pleased by her dancing, offered her a reward " unto the half of my kingdom "; instructed by Herodias, she asked for John the Baptist's " head in a- charger 'u (see HEROD II. ANTIPAS). Salome is also the name of one of the women who are mentioned as present at the Crucifixion (Mark xv. 40), and afterwards in the Sepulchre (xvi. i). Comparison with Matt, xxvii. 56 suggests that she was also the wife of Zebedee (cf. Matt. xx. 20-23). It is further conjectured that she was a sister of Mary the mother of Jesus, in which case James and John would be cousins of Jesus. In the absence of specific evidence any such identifica- tion must be regarded with suspicion. SALON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 40 m. N.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 9927; commune, 14,050. Salon is situated on the eastern border of the plain of Crau and on the irrigation canal of Craponne, the engineer of which, Adam de Craponne (1510- 1559, has a statue in the town, where he was born. The chief buildings are the church of St Laurent (i4th century), which contains the tomb of Michael Nostradamus, the famous astrologer, who died at Salon in 1565, and the church of St Michel (i2th century), with a fine Romanesque portal. The central and oldest part of the town preserves a gateway of the isth century and the remains of fortifications. There are remains of Roman walls near Salon, and in the hotel-de-ville (i?th century) there is a milestone of the 4th century. The town carries on an active trade in oil and soap, which are the chief of its numerous manu- factures. Olives are largely grown in the district, and there is a large trade in them and in almonds. SALONICA, SALONIKA or SALONIKI (anc. Tkessalonica, Turkish Selanik, Slav. Solun); the capital of the Turkish vilayet of Salonica, in western Macedonia, and one of the principal seaports of south-western Europe. Pop. (1905) about 130,000, including some 60,000 Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors fled hither in the 1 6th century to escape religious persecution in Spain and Portugal: their language is a corrupt form of Spanish, called Ladino (i.e. Latin), and spoken to some extent by other com- munities in the city. Salonica lies on the west side of the Chalcidic peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Salonica (Sinus Thermaicus), on a fine bay whose southern edge is formed by the Calamerian heights, while its northern and western side is the broad alluvial plain produced by the discharge of the Vardar and the Bistritza, the principal rivers of western Macedonia. Built partly on the low ground along the edge of the bay and partly on the hill to the north (a compact mass of mica schist), the city with its white houses enclosed by white walls runs up along natural ravines to the castle of the Heptapyrgion, or Seven Towers, and is rendered picturesque by numerous domes and minarets and the foliage of elms, cypresses and mulberry trees. The commercial quarter of the town, lying to the north-west, towards the great valleys by which the inland traffic is conveyed, is pierced by broad and straight streets paved with lava. There are electric tram- ways and a good water-supply, but most of the older houses are fragile wooden structures coated with lime or mud, and the sanitation is defective. Apart from churches, mosques and synagogues, there are a few noteworthy modern buildings, such as the Ottoman Bank, the baths, quarantine station, schools and hospitals; but the chief architectural interest of Salonica is centred in its Roman and Byzantine remains. Antiquities.— The Via Egnatia of the Romans (mod. Jassijol or Grande Rue de Vardar) traverses the city from east to west, between the Vardar Gate and the Calamerian Gate. Two Roman triumphal arches used to span the Via Egnatia. The arch near the Vardar Gate — a massive stone structure probably erected towards the end of the ist century A.D., was destroyed in 1867 1 Charger, a large flat plate (see CHARGE). 86 SALONICA to furnish material for repairing the city walls; an imperfect inscription from it is preserved in the British Museum. The other arch, popularly called-the arch of Constantine, but with greater probability assigned to the reign of Galerius (A.D. 305-311), is built of brick and partly faced with sculptured marble. A third example of Roman architecture — the remains of a white marble portico supposed to have formed the entrance to the hippodrome — is known by the Judaeo-Spanish designation of Las Incantadas, from the eight Caryatides in the upper part of the structure. There are also numerous fragments of Roman inscriptions and statuary. The conspicuous mosques of Salonica are nearly all of an early Christian origin; the remarkable preservation of their mural decorations makes them very im- portant for the history of Byzantine architecture. The principal are those dedicated to St Sophia, St George and St Demetrius. St Sophia (Aya Sofia), formerly the cathedral, and probably erected in the 6th century by Justinian's architect Anthemius, was converted into a mosque in 1589. It is cased with slabs of white marble. The whole length of the interior is _no ft. The nave, forming a Greek cross, is surmounted by a hemispherical dome, the 600 sq. yds. of which are covered with a rich mosaic representing the Ascension. St Demetrius, which is probably older than the time of Justinian, consists of a long nave and two side aisles, each ter- minating eastward in an atrium the full height of the nave, in a style not known to occur in any other church. The columns of the aisles are half the height of those in the nave. The internal decoration is all produced by slabs of different-coloured marbles. St George's, conjecturally assigned to the reign of Constantine (d. 337), is circular in plan, measuring internally 80 ft. in diameter. The external wall is 1 8 ft. thick, and at the angles of an inscribed octagon are chapels formed in the thickness of the wall, and roofed with wagon-headed vaults visible on the exterior; the eastern chapel, however, is en- larged and developed into a bema and apse projecting beyond the circle, and the western and southern chapels constitute the two entrances of the building. The dome, 72 yds. in circumference, is covered throughout its entire surface of 800 sq. yds. with what is the largest work in ancient mosaic still extant, representing a series of fourteen saints standing in the act of adoration in front of temples and colonnades. The Eski Juma, or Old Mosque, is another interest- ing basilica, evidently later than Constantine, with side aisles and an apse without side chapels. The churches of the Holy Apostles and of St Elias also deserve mention. Of the secular buildings, the Caravanserai, usually attributed to Murad II. (1422-1451), probably dates from Byzantine times. Salonica is the see of an Orthodox Greek archbishop. Each religious community has its own schools and places of worship, among the most important being the Jewish high-school, the Greek and Bulgarian gymnasia, the Jesuit college, a high-school founded in 1860 and supported by the Jewish Mission of the Established Church of Scotland, a German school, dating from 1887, and a college for boys and a secondary school for girls, both managed by the French Mission La'ique and subsidized since 1905 by the French government. Railways, Harbour and Commerce. — Salonica is the principal Aegean seaport of the Balkan Peninsula, the centre of the import trade of all Macedonia and two-thirds of Albania, and the natural port of shipment for the products of an even larger area. It is the terminus of four railways. One line goes north to Nish in Servia, where it meets the main line (Paris- Vienna-Constantinople) of the Oriental railways; another, after following the same route as far as I -.kul i in Macedonia, branches off to Mitrovitza in Albania; the extension of this line to Serajevo in Bosnia was projected in 1908 in order to establish direct communication between Austria and Salonica. A third line, intended ultimately to reach the Adriatic, extends westward from Salonica to Monastir. A fourth, the Con- stantinople junction railway to Constantinople, is of great strategic importance; during the war with Greece in 1897 it facilitated the rapid concentration of Ottoman troops on the borders of Thessaly, and in 1908 it helped to secure the triumph of the Young Turks by bringing the regiments favourable to their propaganda within striking distance of Constantinople. The new harbour, which was opened to navigation in December 1901, allows the direct transhipment of all merchandise whatever may be the direction of the wind, which was previously apt to render shipping operations difficult. The harbour works consist of a breakwater 1835 ft. long, with 28 ft. depth of water on its landward side for a width of 492 ft. Opposite the breakwater is a quay '475 ft- long, which was widened in 1903—1907 to a breadth of 306 ft. ; at each end of the quay a pier 656 ft. long projects into the sea. Between the extremities of these two piers and those of the breakwater are the two entrances to the harbour. The average number of ships, including small coasters, which entered the port in each of the three years 1905-1907 was 3400, of 930,000 tons. Salonica exports grain, flour, bran, silk cocoons, chrome, manganese, iron, hides and ukins, cattle and sheep, wool, eggs, opium, tobacco and fennel. The average yearly value of the imports from 1900 to 1905 was £2,500,000, and that of the exports £1,200,000. The imports consist principally of textiles, iron goods, sugar, tobacco, flour, coffee and chemicals. The volume of the export trade tended to decrease in the first decade of the 2Oth century. The making of morocco leather and other leather-work, such as saddlery, harness and boots and shoes, affords employment to a large number of persons. Other industries are cotton-spinning, brewing, tanning, iron-founding, and the manufacture of bricks, tiles, soap, flour, ironmongery and ice. The spirit called mastic or raki is largely produced. History. — Thessalonica was built on the site of the older Greek city of Therma, so called in allusion to the hot-springs of the neighbourhood. It was founded in 315 B.C. by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife, a sister of Alexander the Great. It was a military and commercial station on a main line of com- munication between Rome and the East, and had reached its zenith before the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople. It became famous in connexion with the early history of Christ- ianity through the two epistles addressed by St Paul to the community which he founded here; and in the later defence of the ancient civilization against the barbarian inroads it played a considerable part. In 390 7000 citizens who had been guilty of insurrection were massacred in the hippodrome by command of Theodosius. Constantine repaired the port, and probably enriched the town with some of its buildings. During the iconoclastic reigns of terror it stood on the defensive, and succeeded in saving the artistic treasures of its churches: in the Qth century Joseph, one of its bishops, died in chains for his defence of image-worship. In the 7th century the Macedonian Slavs strove to capture the city, but failed even when it was thrown into confusion by a terrible earthquake. It was the attempt made to transfer the whole Bulgarian trade to Thes- salonica that in the close of the gth century caused the invasion of the empire by Simeon of Bulgaria. In 904 the Saracens from the Cyrenaica took the place by storm; the public buildings were grievously injured, and the inhabitants to the number of 22,000 were carried off and sold as slaves throughout the countries of the Mediterranean. In 1185 the Normans of Sicily took Thessalonica after a ten days' siege, and perpetrated endless barbarities, of which Eustathius, then bishop of the see, has left an account. In 1 204 Baldwin, conqueror of Constanti- nople, conferred the kingdom of Thessalonica on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; but in 1222 Theodore, despot of Epirus, one of the natural enemies of the new kingdom, took the city and had himself there crowned by the patriarch of Macedonian Bulgaria. On the death of Demetrius, who had been supported in his endeavour to recover his father's throne by Pope Honorius III., the empty title of king of Salonica was adopted by several claimants. In 1266 the house of Burgundy received a grant of the titular kingdom from Baldwin II. when he was titular emperor, and it was sold by Eudes IV. to Philip of Tarentum, titular emperor of Romania, in 1320. The Venetians to whom the city was transferred by one of the Palaeologi, were in power when Murad II. appeared, and on the ist of May 1430, in spite of the desperate resistance of the inhabitants, took the city, which had thrice previously been in the hands of the Turks. They cut to pieces the body of St Demetrius, the patron saint of Salonica, who had been the Roman proconsul of Greece, under Maximian, and was martyred in A.D. 306. In 1876 the French and German consuls at Salonica were murdered by the Turkish populace. On the 4th of September 1890 more than 2000 houses were destroyed by fire in the south-eastern quarters of the city. During the early years of the 2oth century Salonica was the headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress, the central organization of the Young Turkey Party, which carried out the constitutional revolution of 1908. Before this event the weakness of Turkey had encouraged the belief that Salonica would ultimately pass under the control of Austria-Hungary or one of the Balkan States, and this belief gave rise to many political intrigues which helped to delay the solution of the Macedonian Question. Vilayet. — The vilayet of Salonica has an area of 13,510 sq. m. and an estimated population of 1,150,000. It is rich in minerals, including chrome, manganese, zinc, antimony, iron, argentiferous SALOON— SALT lead, arsenic and lignite, but some of these are unworked. The chief agricultural products are grain, rice, beans, cotton, opium and poppy seed, sesame, fennel, red pepper, and much of the finest tobacco grown in Europe; there is also some trade in timber, live- stock, skins, furs, wool and silk cocoons. The growth of commerce has been impeded by the ignorance of cultivators, the want of good roads and the unsettled political condition of Turkey. Apart from the industries carried on in the capital, there are manufactures of wine liqueurs, sesame oil, cloth, macaroni and soap. The principal towns, Seres (pop. 30,000), Vodena (25,000) and Cavalla (24,000), are described in separate articles; Tikvesh (21,000) is the centre of an agricultural region, Caraferia (14,000) a manufacturing town, and Drama (13,000) one of the centres of tobacco cultivation. SALOON, a large room for the reception of guests in a mansion. The French salon itself is formed from salle, Ger. Saal, hall, reception-room, represented in Old English by the cognate seel, hall, properly " abiding-place," from the root seen in Gothic saljan, to dwell, cf. Russ. selo, village. The word in its proper sense has now a somewhat archaistic flavour, being chiefly used of the 1 8th century, and it has come principally to be used (i) of the large rooms on passenger steamers; (2) on English railways of carriages for the accommodation of large parties not divided into compartments, and in the United States of the so-called " drawing-room cars "; and (3) of a bar or place for the sale of intoxicants. SALSAFY, or SALSIFY, Tragopogon porrifolius, a hardy biennial, with long, cylindrical, fleshy, esculent roots, which, when properly cooked, are extremely delicate and wholesome; it occurs in meadows and pastures in the Mediterranean region, and in Britian is confined to the south of England, but is not native. The salsafy requires a free, rich, deep soil, which should be trenched in autumn, the manure used being placed at two spades' depth from the surface. The first crop should be sown in March, and the main crop in April, in rows a foot from each other, the plants being afterwards thinned to 8 in. apart. In November the whitish roots should be taken up and stored in sand for immediate use, others being secured in a similar way during intervals of mild weather. The genus Tragopogon belongs to the natural order Compositae, and is represented in Britain by goat's beard, T. pratmsis, found in meadows, pastures and waste places. The flowers close at noon, whence the popular name " John-go-to-bed-at-noon." SALSETTE ( = " sixty-six villages "), a large island in British India, N. of Bombay city, forming part of Thana district. Area, 246 sq. m. It is connected with Bombay Island and also with the mainland by bridge and causeway. Salsette is a beautiful, well-wooded tract, its surface being diversified by hills and mountains, some of considerable height, while it is rich in rice fields. In various parts of the island are ruins of Portuguese churches, convents and villas; while the cave temples of Kanheri form a subject of interest. There are 109 Buddhist caves, which date from the end of the 2nd century A.D., but are not so interesting as those of Ajanta, Ellora and Karli. Salsette is crossed by two lines of railway, which have encouraged the building of villa residences by the wealthier merchants of Bombay. The population in 1901 was 146,933. The island was taken from the Portuguese by the Mahrattas in 1739, and from them by the British in 1774; it was formally annexed to the East India Company's dominions in 1782 by the treaty of Salbai. There is another Salsette in the Portuguese settlement of Goa, a district with a population (1900) of 113,061. SALSOMAGGIORE, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Parma, 6 m. S.W. of Borgo San Donnino by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 1387 (village); 7274 (commune). It is situated 525 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the Apennines, and is a popular watering-place, the baths being especially frequented. The water is strongly saline. SALT, SIR TITUS, BART.(i8o3-i876), English manufacturer, was born on the 2Oth of September 1803, at Morley, Yorkshire. In 1820 he was apprenticed to learn wool-stapling at Bradford, and his father, having followed him there and started in that business, took him into partnership in 1824. His success in intro- ducing the coarse Russian wool (donskoi) into English worsted manufacture, due to special machinery of his own devising, gave his firm a great impetus. In 1836 he solved the difficulties of working alpaca (q.v.) wool, created an enormous industry n the production of the staple goods for which that name was retained, and became one of the richest manufacturers in Brad- ford. In 1853 he opened, a few miles out of the city on the Aire, the extensive works and model manufacturing town of Saltaire. From 1859-1861 Salt was M. P. for Bradford, of which city he had oeen mayor in 1848, and in 1869 he was created a baronet. He died on the 2oth of September 1876, and was accorded a public funeral. After his death his many benevolent institutions at Saltaire, at first continued by his widow, were transferred to a trust. See R. Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, his Life and its Lessons. SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. aXs, Lat. sal). In chemistry the term salt is given to a compound formed by substituting the bydrogen of an acid by a metal or a radical acting as a metal, or, what comes to the same thing, by eliminating the elements of water between an acid and a base (see ACID; CHEMISTRY). Common Salt. Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native and industrial forms of sodium chloride, NaCl. Pure sodium chloride, which may be obtained by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a saturated solution of the commercial salt, whereupon it is precipitated, forms colourless, crystalline cubes (see also below under Rock salt) which melt at 815.4°, and begins to volatilize at slightly higher temperatures. It is readily soluble in water, 100 parts of which dissolve 35-52 parts at o° and 39.16 parts at 100°. The saturated solution at 109.7° contains 40-35 parts of salt to 100 of water. On cooling a saturated solution to -10°, or by cooling a solution in hot hydrochloric acid, the hydrate NaCl. 2H2O separates; on further cooling an aqueous solution to -20° a cryohydrate containing 23-7% of the salt is deposited. The consideration of this important substance falls under two heads, relating respectively to sea salt or " bay " salt and " rock " salt or mineral salt. The one is probably derived from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing evidence of having been formed by the evaporation of lakes or seas. Sea Salt. — Assuming that each gallon of sea water contains 0-2547 Ib of salt, and allowing an average density 2-24 for rock- salt, it has been computed that the entire ocean if dried up would yield no less than four and a half million cubic miles of rock-salt, or about fourteen and a half times the bulk of the entire continent of Europe above high-water mark. The proportion of sodium chloride in the water of the ocean, where it is mixed with small quantities of other salts, is on the average about 3.33%, ranging from 2-9% for the polar seas to 3-55% or more at the equator. Enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Black Sea, the Dead Sea, the Caspian and others, are dependent of course for the proportion and quality of their saline matter on local circumstances (see OCEAN). At one time almost the whole of the salt in commerce was produced from the evaporation of sea water, and indeed salt so made still forms a staple commodity in many countries possessing a seaboard, especially those where the climate is dry and the summer of long duration. In Portugal there are salt works at Setubal, Alcacer do Sal, Figueira and Aveiro. Spain has salt works at the Bay of Cadiz, the Balearic Islands, &c.; Italy at Sicily, Naples, Tuscany and Sardinia. France has its " marais salants du midi " and also works on the Atlantic seaboard; whilst Austria has " Salzgarten " at various places on the Adriatic (Sabbioncello, Trieste, Pirano, Capo d'Istria,&c.). In England and Scotland the industry has greatly fallen off under the competition of the rock-salt works of Cheshire. The process of the spontaneous evaporation of sea water was studied by Usiglio on Mediterranean water at Cette. The density at first was 1-02. Primarily but a slight deposit is formed (none until the concentration arrives at specific gravity 1-0509), this deposit consisting for the most part of calcium carbonate and ferric oxide. This goes on till a density of 1-1315 isattained, when hydrated calcium sulphate begins to deposit, and continues till specific gravity 1-2646 is reached. At a density of 1-218 the deposit becomes augmented by sodium chloride, which goes down mixed with a little magnesium chloride and sulphate. At specific gravity 1-2461 a 88 SALT little sodium bromide has begun also to deposit. At specific gravity 1-311 the volume of the water contained — Magnesium sulphate .... 11-45% Magnesium chloride .... 19-53 % Sodium chloride 15-98% Sodium bromide 2-04% Potassium chloride .... 3-30 % Up to the time then that the water became concentrated to specific gravity 1-218 only 0-150 of deposit had formed, and that chiefly composed of lime and iron, but between specific gravity 1-218 and 1-313 there is deposited a mixture of — Calcium sulphate . Magnesium sulphate Magnesium chloride Sodium chloride Sodium bromide 0-0283 % 0-0624% 0-0153% 2-7107% O-O222 % 2-8389% Of this about 95% is sodium chloride. Up to this point the separation of the salts has taken place in a fairly regular manner, but now the temperature begins to exert an influence, and some of the salts deposited in the cold of the night dissolve again partially in the heat of the day. By night the liquor gives nearly pure mag- nesium sulphate; in the day the same sulphate mixed with sodium and potassium chlorides is deposited. The mother-liquor now falls to a specific gravity of 1-3082 to 1-2965, and yields a very mixed deposit of magnesium bromide and chloride, ootassium chloride and magnesium sulphate, with the double magnesium and potassium sulphate, corresponding to the kainite of Stassfurt. There is also deposited a double magnesium and potassium chloride, similar to the carnallite of Stassfurt, and finally the mother-liquor, which has now again risen to specific gravity 1-3374, contains only pure mag- nesium chloride. The application of these results to the production of salt from sea water is obvious. A large piece of land, barely above high-water mark, is levelled, and if necessary puddled with clay. In tidal seas a " jas " (or storage reservoir) is constructed alongside, similarly rendered impervious, in which the water is allowed to settle and concentrate to a certain extent. In non-tidal seas this storage basin is not required. The prepared land is partitioned off into large basins (adernes or muants) and others (called in France aires, eeuillets or tables salantcs) which get smaller and more shallow in proportion as they are intended to receive the water as it becomes more and more concentrated, just sufficient fall being allowed from one set of basins to the other to cause the water to flow slowly through them. The flow is often assisted by pimping. The sea salt thus made is collected into small heaps on the paths around the basins or the floors of the basins themselves, and here it under- goes a first partial purification, the more deliquescent salts (especially the magnesium chloride) being allowed to drain away. From these heaps it is collected into larger ones, where it drains further, and becomes more purified. The salt is collected from the surface by means of a sort of wooden scoop or scraper, but in spite of every precaution some of the soil on which it is produced is inevitably taken up with it, communicating a red or grey tint. Generally speaking this salt, which may contain up to 15% of impurities, goes into commerce just as it is, but in some cases it is taken first to the refinery, where it either is simply washed and then stove-dried before being sent out, or is dissolved in fresh water and then boiled down and crystallized like white salt from rock-salt brine. The salt of the " salines du midi " of the south-east of France is far purer, containing about 5% of impurities. In northern Russia and in Siberia sea water is concentrated by freezing, the ice which separates containing little salt ; the brine is then boiled down when an impure sea salt is deposited. Rock-salt. — To mineralogists rock-salt is often known as halite — a name suggested in 1847 by E. F. Glocker from the Greek &Xs (salt). The word halite, however, is sometimes used not only for the species rock-salt but as a group-name to include a series of haloid minerals, of which that species is the type. Halite or rock-salt crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in cubes, rarely in octahedra; the cubes being solid, unlike the skeleton-cubes obtained by rapid evaporation of brine. The mineral has perfect cubic cleavage. Percussion- figures, readily made on the cleavage-faces, have rays parallel to faces of the rhombic dodecahedron; whilst figures etched with water represent the four-faced cube. Rock-salt commonly occurs in cleavable masses, or sometimes in laminar, granular or fibrous forms, the finely fibrous variety being known as "hair-salt." The hardness is 2 to 2-5 and the spec. grav. 2-1 to 2-6. Rock-salt when pure is colourless and transparent, but is usually red or brown by mechanical admixture with ferric oxide or hydroxide. The salt is often grey, through bituminous matter or other impurity, and rarely green, blue or violet. The blue colour, which disappears on heating or dissolving the salt, has been variously ascribed to the presence of sodium subchloride, sodium, sulphur or of a certain compound of iron, or again to the existence of minute cavities with parallel walls. Halite occasionally exhibits double refraction, perhaps due to natural pressure. It is remarkably diathermanous, or capable of transmitting heat-rays, and has therefore been used in certain physical investigations. Pure halite consists only of sodium chloride, but salt usually contains certain magnesium ccmpounds rendering it deliquescent. Minute vesicular cavities are not infrequently present, sometimes as negative cubes, and these may contain saline solutions or carbon dioxide or gaseous hydrocarbons. Some salt decrepitates on solution (Knistersah), the phenomenon being due to the escape of condensed gases. Halite may occur as a sublimate on lava, as at Vesuvius and some other volcanoes, where it is generally associated with potassium chloride; but its usual mode of occurrence is in bedded deposits, often lenticular, and sometimes of great thick- ness. The salt is commonly associated with gypsum, often also with anhydrite, and occasionally with sylvite, carnallite and other minerals containing potassium and magnesium. Deposits of rock-salt have evidently been formed by the evaporation of salt water, probably in areas of inland drainage or enclosed basins, like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, or perhaps in some cases in an arm of the sea partially cut off, like the Kara Bughaz, which forms a natural salt-pan on the east side of the Caspian. Such beds of salt are found in strata of very varied geological age; the Salt Range of the Punjab, for instance, is probably of Cambrian age, while the famous salt- deposits of Wieliczka, near Cracow, have been referred to the Pliocene period. In many parts of the world, including the British area, the Triassic age offered conditions especially favourable for the formation of large salt -deposits. In England extensive deposits of rock-salt are found near the base of the Keuper marl, especially in Cheshire. The mineral occurs generally in lenticular deposits, which may reach a thickness of more than 100 ft. ; but it is mined only to a limited extent, most of the salt being obtained from brine springs and wells which derive their saline character from deposits of salts. Much salt is obtained from north Lancashire, as also from the brine pits of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, Yorkshire, Durham and the Isle of Man (Point of Ayre). The salt of N.E. Yorkshire and S. Durham is regarded1 by some authorities as Permian, but that near Carrickfergus ir Co. Antrim, Ireland, is undoubtedly of Triassic age. The Antrim salt was discovered in 1850 during a search for coal: one of the beds at Duncrue mine has a thickness of 80 ft. Important deposits of rock- salt occur in the Keuper at Berchtesgaden, in the Bavarian Alps; at Hall in Tirol and at Hallcin, Hallstatt, Ischl and Aussee in the Sajzkammergut in Austria. Salt occurs in the Muschelkalk at Friedrichshall and some other localities in Wurttemberg and Thur- ingia; and in the Bunter at Sch&ningcn near Brunswick. The Permian system (Zechstein) yields the great salt-deposits worked at Stassfurt and at Halle in Prussian Saxony. The Stassfurt deposits are of special importance for the sake of the associated salts of potassium and magnesium, such as carnallite and kainite. These deposits, in addition to having a high commercial importance, present certain problems which have received much attention, more particularly at the hands of van't Hoff and his collaborators, whose results are embodied in his Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzab- lagerungen, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1909). (A summary is given in A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, 1909; see also van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i.) A typical section is as follows: Beneath the surface soil of sandstone there is a layer up to 100 ft. in thickness of carnallite, MgClj-KCl-6H2O, mixed with a little salt; this is followed by a thicker deposit of kieserite, MgSOi-HjO, containing rather more salt than the upper bed. Deeper down there are suc- cessively strata of polyhahte, MgSO<-K2SO4-2CaSO4-2HaO, and anhydrite, CaSC>4, interspersed with regular layers of rock-salt; whilst below the anhydrite we have the main rock-salt deposits. A bed of rock-salt in the Zechstein at Spercnberg near Berlin has been proved by boring to have a thickness of upwards of 4000 ft. The salt of Bex in Switzerland is Jurassic, whilpt Cretaceous salt occurs in Westphalia and Algiers. Important deposits of salt are developed in many parts of trie Tertiary strata. At Cardona, near Barcelona, Tertiary salt forms hill-masses, while the Carpathian SALT 89 sandstone in Galicia and Transylvania is rich in salt. The extensive mines at Wieliczka are in this rock-salt, as also is the salt of Kalusz in Galicia, which is associated with sylvite, KC1. In North America salt is widely distributed at various geological horizons. In New York it occurs in the Salina beds of the Ononclaga series, of Silurian age; and Silurian salt is found also in parts of Michigan and in Ontario, Canada. Some of the salt of Michigan is regarded as Carboniferous. Rock-salt is mined in several states, as New York, Kansas and Louisiana; but American salt is mostly obtained from brine. Deposits of salt, regarded as either Cretaceous or Tertiary, occur in the island of Petite Anse, west of Vermilion Bay, in Louisiana. Salt often occurs in association with petroleum and natural gas, and extensive beds were discovered in the Wyoming valley in boring for petroleum. In the dry regions of the West salt occurs as an incrustation on the surface of the soil — a mode of occurrence found in desert areas in various parts of the world. Cubic pseudomorphs representing rock-salt are sometimes seen in strata which have been deposited in shallow water, especially on the margin of a salt-lake. The salt has been dissolved out of its original matrix, and the cavity so formed has then been filled with fine clayey or other mineral matter, forming a cubic cast. Such casts are not infrequent in the Keuper marls and sandstones, and in the Purbeck beds of England. Manufacture. — The chief centres of manufacture in England are at Northwich, Middlewich, Winsford and Sandbach in Cheshire, Weston-on-Trent in Staffordshire, Stoke Prior and Droitwich in Worcestershire and Middlesbrough in Yorkshire.1 The Cheshire and Worcestershire salt deposits are by far the most important. Although brine springs have been known to exist in both these counties ever since the Roman occupation, and salt had been made there from time immemorial, it was not till 1670 that rock-salt about 30 yds. thick was discovered at Marbury near Northwich by some men exploring for coal, at a depth of 34 yds. In 1779 three beds of rock-salt were discovered at Lawton, separated from one another by layers of indurated clay. The old Marston or Marston Rock mine is the largest and perhaps the oldest in England. It was worked for about a hundred years in only its upper bed, 'but in 1781, after traversing a layer of indurated clay intersected with small veins of salt 10^ yds. thick, a layer of rock-salt 33 to 37 yds. thick was found. Beneath it are others, but they are thin and im- pure. The total depth of the mine to the bottom of the lower level is 120 yds. At Winsford, where the same formation seems to recur, it is 159 yds. from the surface. The Marston mine covers an area of about 40 acres. The salt is first reached at 35-40 yds. in the North- wich district, and the upper layer is 25-50 yds. in thickness (Marston 23-26 yds.) ; it has above it, apparently lying in the recesses of its surface, a layer of saturated brine. This is the brine which is raised at the various pumping stations in Northwich and elsewhere around, and which serves to produce white salt. The beds are reached by sinking through the clays and variegated marls typical of this for- mation. The salt is blasted out with gunpowder. The Middles- brough deposit was discovered by Bolckow and Vaughan in boring for water in 1862 at a depth of 400 yds., but was not utilized, and was again found by Messrs Bell Brothers at Port Clarence at a depth of 376 yds. In Cheshire the surface-water trickling through the overlying strata dissolves the salt, which is subsequently pumped as brine, but at Middlesbrough the great depth and impermeability of the strata precludes this, so another method has been resorted to. A bore is made into the salt, and lined with tubing, and this tube where it traverses the salt is pierced with holes. Within this is hung loosely a second tube of much smaller dimensions so as to leave an annular space between the two. Through this space the fresh surface water finds its way, and dissolving the salt below rises in the inner tube as brine, but only to such a level that the two columns bear to one another the relation of ten to twelve, this being the inverse ratio of the respective weights of saturated brine and fresh water. For the remaining distance the brine is raised by a pump. The fresh water, however, as it descends rises to the surface of the salt, tending rather to dissolve its upper layers and extend superficially, so that after a time the superincumbent soil, being without support, falls in. These interior landslips, besides choking the pipes and breaking the communication, often produce sinkings at the surface. The same inconvenience is felt in the environs of Nancy, and a similar one produces on a larger scale the sinking and subsidences at Winsford and Northwich. In the United States extensive deposits and brine springs are worked, and also incrustations (see above). Canada also is a pro- ducer. South America possesses several salt deposits and brine springs. Asiatic Russia is very abundantly supplied with salt, as likewise is China; and Persia is perhaps one of the countries most abundantly endowed with this natural and useful product. In India there is the great salt range of the Punjab, as well as the Sambhur Lake, and salt is obtained from sea water at many places along its extensive seaboard. 1 The termination " wich " in English place-names often points to ancient salt manufacture-^the word " wich " (creek, bay; Icel. vik) having acquired a special sense in English usage. In Germany the various forms of the non-Teutonic words Hall, Halle occurring in place-names point in the same way to ancient salt-works. Rock-salt is the origin of the greater part of the salt manufactured in the world. It occurs in all degrees of purity, fAjm that of mere salty clay to that of the most transparent crystals. In the former case it is often difficult to obtain the brine at a density even approach- ing saturation, and chambers and galleries are sometimes excavated within the saliferous beds to increase the dissolving surface, and water let down fresh is pumped up as brine. Many brine springs also occur in a more or less saturated condition. In cases where the atmospheric conditions are suitable the brine is run into large tanks and concentrated merely by solar heat, or it may be caused to trickle over faggots arranged under large open sheds called " gradua- tion houses " (Gradirhauser), whereby a more extensive surface of evaporation is obtained and the brine becomes rapidly concentrated. After settling it is evaporated in iron pans. The use, however, of the "graduation houses" is dying out, as both their construction and their maintenance are expensive. The purer rock-salt is often simply ground for use, as at Wieliczka and elsewhere, but it is more frequently pumped as brine, produced either by artificial solution as at Middlesbrough and other places, or by natural means, as in Cheshire and Worcestershire. One great drawback to the use of even the purest rock-salt simply ground is its tendency to revert to a hard unwieldy mass, when kept any length of time in sacks. As usually made, white salt from rock-salt may be classified into two groups: (i) boiled: known as fine, table, lump, stoved lump, superfine, basket, butter and cheese salt (Fr. set Jin-fin, sel d la minute, &c.); (2) unboiled: common, chemical, fishery, Scotch fishery, extra fishery, double extra fishery and bay salt (Fr. sel de 12, 24, 48, 60 and 72 heures). All these names are derived from the size and appearance of the crystals, their uses and the modes of their production. The boiled salts, the crystals of which are small, are formed in a medium constantly agitated by boiling. The fine or stoved table salts are those white masses with which we are all familiar. Basket salt takes its name from the conical baskets from which it is allowed to drain when first it is " drawn " from the pan. Butter and cheese salts are not stove-dried, but left in their more or less moist condition, as being thus more easily applied to their respective uses. Of the unboiled salts the first two, corresponding to the Fr. sel de 12 heures and sel de 24 heures, show by their English names the use to which they are applied, and the others merely depend for their quality on the length of time which elapses between successive " drawings, ' and the temperature of the evaporation. The time varies for the unboiled salts from twelve hours to three or four weeks, the larger crystals being allowed a longer time to form, and the smaller ones being formed more quickly. The temperature varies from 55° to 180° F. One difference between the manufacture of salt from rock-salt brine as carried on in Britain and on the Continent lies in the use in the latter case of closed or covered pans, except in the making of fine salt, whereas in Britain open ones are employed. With open pans the vapour is free to diffuse itself into the atmosphere, and the evaporation is perhaps more rapid. When covered pans are used, the loss of heat by radiation is less, and the salt made is also cleaner. It has also been proposed to concentrate the brines under diminished pressure. In S. Pick's system a triple effect is obtained by evapora- ting in these connected vessels, so that the steam from one heats the second into which it is led (see Soc. of Eng., 1891, p. 115). In Britain the brine is so pure that, keeping a small stream of it running into the pan to replace the losses by evaporation and the removal of the salt, it is only necessary occasionally (not often) to reject the mother-liquor when at last it becomes too impure with magnesium chloride ; but in some works the mother-liquor not only contains more of this impurity but becomes quite brown from organic matter on concentration, and totally unfit for further service after yielding but two or three crops of salt crystals. Some- times, to get rid of these impurities, the brine is treated in a large tub (bessoir) with lime; on settling it becomes clear and colourless, but the dissolved lime forms a skin on its surface in the pan, retards the evaporation and impedes the crystallization. At times sodium sulphate is added to the brine, producing sodium chloride and mag- nesium sulphate by double decomposition with the magnesium chloride. A slight degree of acidity seems more favourable to the crystallization of salt than alkalinity; thus it is a practice to add a certain amount of alum, 2 to 12 ft per pan of brine, especially when, as in fishery salt, fine crystals are required. The salt is " drawn " from the pan and placed (in the case of boiled salts) in small conical baskets hung round the pan to drain, and thence moulded in square boxes and afterwards stove-dried, or (in case of unboiled salts) " drawn " in a heap on to the " hurdles," on which it drains, and thence is carried to the store. In most European countries a tax is laid on salt; and the coarser as well as the finer crystals are therefore often dried so as not to pay duty on more water than can be helped. The brine used in the salt manufacture in England is very nearly saturated, containing 25 or 26% of sodium chloride, the utmost water can take up being 27%; and it ranges from 38 to 42 oz. of salt per gallon. In some other countries the brine has to be concen- trated before use. Saltmaking is by no means an unhealthy trade, some slight soreness of the eyes being the only affection sometimes complained of; indeed the atmosphere of steam saturated with salt in which 9o SALTA the workmen live seems specially preservative against colds, rheu- matism, neuralgia, &c. A parliamentary commission was appointed in 1881 to investigate the causes of the disastrous subsidences which are constantly taking place in all the salt districts, and the provision of a remedy. It led to no legislative action; but the evil is recognized as a grave one. At Northwich and Winsford scarcely a house or a chimney stack remains straight. Houses are keyed up with " snaps," " face plates " and " bolts," and only kept from falling by leaning on one another. The doors and windows have become lozenge-shaped, the walls bulged and the floors crooked. Buildings have sunk — some of them disappearing altogether. Lakes have been formed where there was solid ground before, and incalculable damage done to property in all quarters. At the same time it is difficult to see how this grievance can be remedied without inflicting serious injury, almost ruin, upon the salt trade. The workings in Great Britain represent the annual abstraction of rather more than a mass of rock equal to a foot in thickness spread over a square mile. The table gives the outputs in metric tons of the most important producers in 1900 and 1905 (from Rothwell, Mineral Industry, 1908). Salt Production in Metric Tons. 1900. 1905. Austria 330.277 343.375 France 1,088,634 1,130,000 Germany .... 1,514,027 1.777,557 Hungary .... 189.363 I95,4io India i ,02 1 ,426 1,212,600 Italy 367,255 437.699 Japan 669,694 483,506 Russia 1,768,005 1,844,678 Spain .... 450,041 493-451 United Kingdom . 1,873,601 1,920,149 United States . 2,651,278 3,297,285 See F. A. Purer, Salzbergbau- und Salinenkunde (Braunschweig, 1900) ; J. O. Freiherr von Buschmann, Das Salz: dessen Vorkommen und Verwertung (Leipzig, vol. I, 1909, vol. 2, 1906). (X.) Ancient History and Religious Symbolism. — Salt must have been quite unattainable to primitive man in many parts of the world. Thus the Odyssey (xi. 122 seq.) speaks of inlanders (in Epirus ?) who do not know the sea and use no salt with their food. In some parts of America, and even of India (among the Todas), salt was first intro- duced by Europeans; and there are still parts of central Africa where the use of it is a luxury confined to the rich. Indeed, where men live mainly on milk and flesh, consuming the latter raw or roasted, so that its salts are not lost, it is not necessary to add sodium chloride, and thus we understand how the Numidian nomads in the time of Sallust and the Bedouins of Hadramut at the present day never eat salt with their food. On the other hand, cereal or vegetable diet calls for a supplement of salt, and so does boiled meat. The important part played by the mineral in the history of commerce and religion depends on this fact ; at a very early stage of progress salt became a necessary of life to most nations, and in many cases they could procure it only from abroad, from the sea-coast, or from districts like that of Palmyra where salty incrustations are found on the surface of the soil. Sometimes indeed a kind of salt was got from the ashes of saline plants (e.g. by the Umbrians, Aristotle, Met. ii. p. 4^59), or by pouring the water of a brackish stream over a fire of (saline) wood and collecting the ashes, as was done in ancient Germany (Tac. Ann. xiii. 57), in Gaul and in Spain (Plin. H.N. xxxi. 7. 82 seq.) ; but these were imperfect surrogates. Among inland peoples a salt spring was regarded as a special gift of the gods. The Chaonians in Epirus had one which flowed into a stream where there were no fish; and the legend was that Heracles had allowed then- forefathers to have salt instead of fish (Arist. ut supra). The Ger- mans waged war for saline streams, and believed that the presence of salt in the soil invested a district with peculiar sanctity and made it a place where prayers were most readily heard (Tac. ut sup.). That a religious significance was attached to a substance so highly prized and which was often obtained with difficulty is no more than natural. And it must also be remembered that the habitual use of salt is intimately connected with the advance from nomadic to agricultural life, i.e. with precisely that step in civilization which had most influence on the cults of almost all ancient nations. The gods were worshipped as the givers of the kindly fruits of the earth, and, as all over the world " bread and salt " go together in common use and common phrase, salt was habitually associated with offerings, at least with all offerings which consisted in whole or in part of cereal elements. This practice is found alike among the Greeks and Romans and among the Semitic peoples (Lev. ii. 13); Homer calls salt " divine," and Plato names it " a substance^ dear to the gods " (Timaeus, p.. 60; cf. Plutarch, Sympos. v. ip). As covenants were ordinarily made over a sacrificial meal, in which salt was a necessary element, the expression " a covenant of salt " (Numb, xviii. 19) is easily understood; it is probable, however, that the preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of an enduring compact, and influenced the choice of this particular element of the covenant meal as that which was regarded as sealing an obligation to fidelity. Among the ancients, as among Orientals down to the present day, every meal that included salt had a certain sacred character and created a bond of piety and guest friendship between the participants. Hence the Greek phrase iXos «eU rpaiftfav irapaftalixiy, the Arab phrase " there is salt between us," the expression " to eat the salt of the palace " (Ezra iv. 14, R.V.), the modern Persian phrase namak haram, " untrue to salt," i.e. disloyal or ungrateful, and many others. Both early in the history of the Roman army and in later times an allowance of salt was made to officers and men. In imperial times, however, this solarium was an allowance of money for salt (see SALARY). It has been conjectured that some of the oldest trade routes were created for traffic in salt; at any rate salt and incense, the chief economic and religious necessaries ot the ancient world, play a great part in all that we know of the ancient highways of commerce. Thus one of the oldest roads in Italy is the Via Solaria, by which the produce of the salt pans of Ostia was carried up into the Sabine country. Herodotus s account of the caravan route uniting the salt- oases of the Libyan desert (iv. 181 seq.) makes it plain that this was mainly a salt-road, and to the present day the caravan trade of the Sahara is largely a trade in salt. The salt of Palmyra was an im- portant element in the vast trade between the Syrian ports and the Persian Gulf (see PALMYRA), and long after the glory of the great merchant city was past " the salt of Tadmor " retained its reputation (Mas'udi viii. 398). In like manner the ancient trade between the Aegean and the coasts of southern Russia was largely dependent on the salt pans at the mouth of the Dnieper and on the salt fish brought from this district (Herod, iv. 53 ; Dio Chrys. p. 437). In Phoenician commerce salt and salt fish — the latter a valued delicacy in the ancient world — always formed an important item. The vast salt mines of northern India were worked before the time of Alexander (Strabo v. 2, 6, xv. I, 30) and must have been the centre of a wide- spread trade. The economic importance of salt is further indicated by the almost universal prevalence in ancient and medieval times, and indeed in most countries down to the present day, of salt taxes or of government monopolies, which have not often been directed, as they were in ancient Rome, to enable every one to procure so necessary a condiment at a moderate price. In Oriental systems of taxation high imposts on salt are seldom lacking and are often carried out in a very oppressive way, one result of this being that the article is apt to reach the consumer in a very impure state largely mixed with earth. " The salt which has lost its savour " (Matt. v. 13) is simply the earthy residuum of such an impure salt after the sodium chloride has been washed out. Cakes of salt have been used as money in more than one part of the world — for example, in Abyssinia and elsewhere in Africa, and in Tibet and adjoining parts. See the testimony of Marco Polo (bk. ii. ch. 48) and Colonel Yule's note upon analogous customs elsewhere and on the use of salt as a medium of exchange in the Shan markets down to our own time, in his translation of Polo ii. 48 seq. In the same work interesting details are given as to the importance of salt in the financial system of the Mongol emperors (ii. 200 seq.). (W. R. S.) SALTA, a N.W. province of Argentina, bounded N. by Bolivia and the province of Jujuy, E. by the territories of Formosa and the Chaco, S. by Santiago del Estero and Tucuman, and W. by the Los Andes territory and Bolivia. Area, 62,184 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimated) 136,059. The western part of the province is mountainous, being traversed from N. to S. by the eastern chains of 'the Andes. Indenting these, however, are large valleys, or bays, of highly fertile and comparatively level land, like that in which the city of Salta is situated. The eastern part of the province is chiefly composed of extensive areas of alluvial plains belonging to the Chaco formation, whose deep, fertile soils are among the best in Argentina. This part of the province is well wooded with valuable construction timbers and furniture woods. The drainage to the Paraguay is through the Bermejo, whose tributaries cover the northern part of the province; and through the Pasage or Juramento, called Salado on its lower course, whose tributaries cover the southern part of the province and whose waters are discharged into the Parana. The climate is hot, and the year is divided into a wet and a dry season, the latter characterized by extreme aridity. Irrigation is necessary in a great part of the province, though the rainfall is abundant in the wet season, about 21 in. Fever and ague, locally called chucho, is prevalent on the lowlands, but in the mountain districts the climate is healthy. There is considerable undeveloped mineral wealth, including gold, silver and copper, but its inhabitants are almost exclusively agriculturist. Its principal products are sugar, rum (aguardiente), wine, wheat, Indian corn, barley, tobacco, alfalfa and coffee. The Cafayate wines are excellent, but are chiefly consumed in the province. SALTA— SALT-CELLAR 91 Various tropical fruits are produced in abundance, but are not sent to market on account of the cost of transportation. Stock- raising is carried on to a limited extent for the home and Bolivian markets. The province is traversed by a government railway (the Central Northern) running northward from Tucuman to the Bolivian frontier, with a branch from General Guemes westward to the city of Salta (q.v.), the provincial capital. The principal towns are Oran (1904, 3000) on a small tributary (the Zenta) of the Bermejo, in the northern part of the province, formerly an important depot in the Bolivian trade, and nearly destroyed by earthquakes in 1871 and 1873; Rosario de Lerma (pop. 1904, 2500), 3om. N.W. of Salta in the great Lerma valley; and Rosario de la-Frontera (pop. 1904, 1200) near the Tucuman frontier, celebrated for its hot mineral baths and gambling establishment. Salta was at one time a part of the great Inca empire, which extended southward into Tucuman and Rioja. It was overrun by adventurers after the Spanish conquest. The first Spanish settle- ment within its borders was made by Hernando de Lerma in 1582. Salta was at first governed from Tucuman, but in 1776 was made capital of the northern intendencia, which included Catamarca, Jujuy and Tucuman. After the War of Independence there was a new division, and Salta was given its present boundaries with the exception of the disputed territory on the Chilean frontier, now the territory of Los Andes. SALTA, a city of Argentina, capital of a province of the same name, and see of a bishopric, on a small tributary (the Arias) of the Pasage, or Juramento, 976 m. by rail N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimated) 18,000. Salta is built on an open plain 3560 ft. above the sea, nearly enclosed with mountains. The climate is warm and changeable, malarial in summer. The city is laid out regularly, with broad, paved streets and several parks. Some of the more important public buildings face on the plaza mayor. There are no manufactures of importance. Salta was once largely interested in the Bolivian trade, and is still a chief distributing centre for the settlements of the Andean plateau. Near the city is the battlefield where General Belgrano won the first victory from the Spanish forces (1812) in the War of Independence. There is a large mestizo element in the popula- tion, and the Spanish element still retains many of the character- istics of its colonial ancestors. In Salta Spanish is still spoken with the long-drawn intonations and melodious " 11 " of southern Spain. Salta was founded in 1582 by Governor Abreu under the title of San Clemente de Nueva Sevilla, but the site was changed two years later and the new settlement was called San Felipe de Lerma. In the 1 7th century the name Salta came into vogue. SALTA (Italian for "Jump!"), a table-game for two intro- duced at the end of the igth century, founded on the more ancient game of Halma. It is played on a board containing too squares, coloured alternately black and white. Each player has a set of 15 pieces, one set being green, the other pink. These are placed upon the black squares of the first three rows nearest the player, and are classified in these rows as stars, moons and suns. The pawns move forward one square at a time, except when a pawn is situated in front of a hostile piece with an unoccupied space on the further side , in which case the hostile pawn must be jumped, as at draughts, but without removing the jumped pawn from the board. The object of the game is to get one's pieces on the exact squares corresponding to their own on the enemy's side, the stars in the star-line, the moons in the moon-line, &c. Salta tournaments have taken place in which chess masters of repute participated. See Salta, by Schubert (Leipzig, 1900). SALTASH, a municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N.W. of Plymouth, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 33S7- It is beautifully situated on the wooded shore of the Tamar estuary, on the lower part of which lies the great port and naval station of Plymouth. Local communications are maintained by river steamers. At Saltash the Royal Albert bridge (1857-1859) carries the railway across the estuary. It was built by Isambard Brunei at a cost of £230,000, and is remarkable for its great height. The church of St Nicholas and St Faith has an early Norman tower, and part of the fabric is considered to date from before the Conquest; but there was much alteration in the Decorated and Perpendi- cular periods. The church of St Stephen, outside the town, retains its ornate Norman font. The fisheries for which Saltash was famous have suffered from the chemicals brought down by the Tamar; but there is a considerable seafaring population, and the town is a recruiting ground for the Royal Navy. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 194 acres. The Sunday market established by the count of Mortain at his castle of Trematon, which ruined the bishop of Exeter's market at St Germans, was probably held at Saltash a short distance from the castle. Saltash (Esse, 1297; Ash, 1302; Assheburgh, 1392) belonged to the manor of Trematon and the latter at the time of the Domesday Survey .was held by Reginald de Valletort of the count. Reginald's descendant and namesake granted a charter (undated) to Saltash about 1190. It confirms to his free burgesses of Esse the liberties enjoyedj by them under his ancestors, viz.: burgage tenure, exemption from all jurisdiction save the " hundred court of the said town," suit of court limited to three times a year, a reeve of their own election, pasturage in his demesne lands on certain terms, a limited control of trade and shipping, and a fair in the middle of the town. This charter was confirmed in the fifth year of Richard II. Roger de Valletort, the last male heir of the family, gave the honour of Trematon and with it the borough of Saltash to Richard, king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall. Thenceforth, in spite of attempts to set aside the grant, the earls and subsequently the dukes of Cornwall were the lords of Saltash. It was probably to this relation that the burgesses owed the privilege of parliamentary representation, conferred by Edward VI. In 1584 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation to Saltash. This was superseded by another in 1683 under which the governing body was to consist of a mayor and six aldermen. In 1774, the corporation being in danger of extinction, burgesses were added, but it was not until 1886 that the ratepayers acquired the right of electing representatives to the council, the right up to that time having been exercised by the members of the corporation. The parliamentary franchise was enjoyed by the mayor, aldermen and the holders of burgage tene- ments. In 1814 they numbered 120. In 1832 Saltash was deprived of its two members. The count of Mortain's Sunday market had given place in 1337 to 'one on Saturday and this is still held. Queen Elizabeth's charter provided for one on Tuesday also, but this has disappeared. A fair on the feast of St Faith yielded 6s. 8d. in 1337. This is no longer held, but fairs at Candlemas and St James, of ancient but uncertain origin, remain. Saltash was sufficiently con- siderable as a port in the i6th century to furnish a frigate at the town's expense against the Armada. This probably represents the zenith of its prosperity. SALTBURN BY THE SEA, a seaside resort in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2578. A frm sandy beach extends westward to Redcar and the mouth of the Tees, while eastward towards Whitby the cliffs become very fine, Boulby Cliff (666 ft.) being the highest sea cliff in England. Several fishing villages occur along this coast, of which none is more picturesque than Staithes, lying in a steep gully in the cliff. There are brine baths supplied from wells near Middlesbrough, a pier, gardens and promenades. Inland the county is hilly and picturesque, though in part defaced by the Cleveland iron mines. SALT-CELLAR, a vessel containing salt, placed upon the table at meals. The word is a combination of "salt" and " saler," assimilated in the i6th and 1 7th centuries to "cellar" (Lat. cellarium, a storehouse). " Saler " is from the Fr. (Mod. salihe), Lat. solarium, that which belongs to salt, cf. " salary." Salt cellar is, therefore, a tautological expression. There are two types of salts, the large ornamental salt which during the medieval ages and later was one of the most important pieces of household plate, and the smaller " salts," actually used and placed near the plates or trenchers of the guests at table; they were hence styled " trencher salts." The great salts, below which the inferior guests sat, were, in the earliest form which survives, shaped like an hour-glass and have a cover. New College, Oxford, possesses a magnificent specimen, dated 1493. Later salts take a square or cylindrical shape. The Elizabethan salt, kept with the regalia in the Tower of London, has a cover with numerous figures. The London Livery Companies possess many salts of a still later pattern, rather low in height and without a SALTER— SALT LAKE CITY cover. The " trencher salts " are either of triangular or circular shape, some are many-sided. The circular silver salt with legs came into use in the i8th century. SALTER, JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1869), English naturalist and palaeontologist, was born on the isth of December 1820. He was apprenticed in 1835 to James de Carle Sowerby, and was engaged in drawing and engraving the plates for Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, the Supplement to his English Botany, and other Natural History works. In 1842 he was employed for a short time by Sedgwick in arranging the fossils in the Wood- wardian Museum at Cambridge, and he accompanied the professor on several geological expeditions (1842-1845) into Wales. In 1846 he was appointed on the staff of the Geological Survey and worked under Edward Forbes until 1854; he was then appointed palaeontologist to the survey and gave his chief attention to the palaeozoic fossils, spending much time in Wales and the border counties. He contributed the palaeontological portion to A. C. Ramsay's Memoir on the Geology of North Wales (1866), assisted Murchison in his work on Siluria (1854 and later editions), and Sedgwick by preparing A Catalogue of the Collection of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils contained in the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge (1873). Salter prepared several of the Decades of the Geological Survey and became the leading authority on Trilobites, contributing to the Palaeontographical Society four parts of A Monograph of British Trilobites (1864- 1867). He resigned his post on the Geological Survey in 1863, and died on the 2nd of August 1869. SALTILLO, a city and the capital of the state of Coahuila, Mexico, about 615 m. by rail N. by W. of the city of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 23,996. Saltillo is on the Mexican National railway and another railway connects it with the important mining and industrial town of Torreon, on the Mexican Central. The city is on the great central plateau of Mexico, about 5200 ft. above sea-level. It has a cool and healthy climate, and is a resort in summer for the people of the tropical coast districts, and in winter for invalids from the north. The city is laid out in regular squares, with shady streets and plazas. The residences are of the Spanish colonial type, with heavy walls and large rooms to insure coolness during the heat of the day. Among its public institu- tions are a national college, an athenaeum, the Madcro Institute with a good library, some fine churches, and the charitable institutions common to all Mexican cities. Saltillo is an active commercial and manufacturing town, and an important railway centre. Its manufactures include cotton and woollen fabrics, knitted goods and flour. The woollen " zarapes " or " ponchos" of Saltillo are among the finest produced in Mexico. There are undeveloped coal deposits in the vicinity. Saltillo was founded in 1586 as an outpost against the Apache Indians. It became an incorporated city in 1827. In 1824 the capital of the state of Coahuila and Texas was at Saltillo. A partisan controversy removed the seat of government to Monclova in 1833, but it was returned to Saltillo in 1835. The battle of Bucna Vista was (ought near Saltillo on the 22nd-23rd of February 1847. After leaving San Luis Potosf, President Juarez established his capital at Saltillo for a brief period. SALT LAKE CITY, the capital city of Utah and the county-seat of Salt Lake county, in the N.W. part of Utah, immediately E. of the Jordan river in the Salt Lake Valley, near the base of the Wasatch mountains, at an altitude of about 4350 ft., about n m. S.E. of the Great Salt Lake, about 710 m. W. by N. of Denver and about 930 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1860) 8236; (1900) S3,53i; (1910 census) 92,777. Area, 51-25 sq. m. Of the total population in 1000, 12,741 (nearly one-fourth) were foreign-born, including 5157 English,1 1687 Swedes, 965 Danes, 963 Germans and 912 Scotch; 35,152 were of foreign-parentage (one or the other parent foreign-born); 278 were negroes, 214 Chinese, 22 Japanese. Salt Lake City is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, the Union Pacific, the Western Pacific, the Oregon Short Line, and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways; it is also a terminus of shorter roads to Ogden, to Los Angeles and to Mercur, a mining town in the Oquirrh mountains 1 The early Mormon missions in England were very successful, and many of the leaders of the church and those otherwise prominent in Salt Lake City have been of English birth. (S. of Great Salt Lake) whose ores are reduced by the cyanide pro- cess. The Oregon Short Line and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake have a union railway station (1909), and the Denver & Rio Grande and the Western Pacific also have a large union rail- way station (1910). The street railway system is excellent; electric cars were introduced in 1889; and the street railways were reorganized by E. H. Harriman, who bought a controlling interest in them. The situation of the city is striking, with views of mountains and of the Great Salt Lake, and the climate is dry and salubrious. The city is the headquarters of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (see MORMONS). The streets are laid out, according to the plan of Brigham Young, with city blocks of 10 acres each (660 ft. sq.) and streets 132 ft. wide, and well shaded with trees planted along irrigating ditches, fed by mountain streams. Brighain (or Soutn Temple) Street is a fine boulevard running 3 m. from the Temple to Fort Douglas. Most of the streets are numbered and named " East " or " West," " North " or " South," from their direction from the centre of the city, the Temple Block. State Street is the official name of First East Street ; and East Temple Street is called Main, and South Temple Street (east of the Temple block) is called Brigham. The only developed parks are Pioneer and City Hall, both small, and Liberty Park (up acres), in which Brigham Young built a grist mill in 1852 and which was bought from his estate by the city in 1880. There are bathing parks on the shores of Great Salt Lake, 11-15 m. W. of the city — the best known being Saltair, which has a Moorish pavilion ; and 5 m. S. is Wandamere (formerly Calder's) Park (64 acres). Three miles E. of the city is Fort Douglas, established as Camp Douglas in 1862 by Colonel P. Edward Connor (1820-1891), afterwards prominently connected with the develop- ment of the mineral resources of Utah ; the fort overlooks the city, being more than 4900 ft. above sea-level. In the city there are medicinal and thermal springs, and water at a temperature of 98- 104° F. is piped to a large bath-house (1850) in the N. part of the city. The most prominent buildings are those of the Church of Latter- Day Saints, particularly, in Temple Square, the Temple, Tabernacle, and Assembly Hall. The great Mormon Temple (1853-1893) has grey granite walls 6 ft. thick, is 99 X 186 ft., and has six spires, the highest (220 ft.) having a copper statue of the angel Moroni. The elliptical Tabernacle (1870) has a rounded, turtle-shell shaped roof, unsupported by pillars or beams, seats nearly 10,000, and has a large pipe organ (5000 pipes). The Assemby Hall (1880), also of granite, has an auditorium which seats about 2500. In 1909 a bishopric building, with many of the business offices of the church, was built. Other buildings connected with the history of the Mormon church are three residences of Brigham Young, called the Lion House, the Beehive (the beehive is the symbol of the industry of the Mormon settlers in the desert and appears on the state seal), and the Amelia Palace or Gardo House (1877), which is now privately owned and houses an excellent private art gallery. Three blocks E. of the Temple is St Mary's, the Roman Catholic cathedral (1909, 100-200 ft.; with two towers 175 ft. high). Other large churches are: St Mark's Cathedral (1869, Protestant Episcopal) and the First Presbyterian Church (1909). There is a large city and county building (1894), built of rough grey sandstone from Utah county; it has a dome on the top of which is a statue of Columbia; over its entrances are statues of Commerce, Liberty and -Justice; its bal- conies command views of the neighbouring country apd of the Great Salt Lake; the interior is decorated with Utah onyx. Other buildings are: the Federal building; the Packard Library, the public library of the city (1905), one block E. of Temple Block, which housed in 1910 about 40,000 volumes; and several business buildings. Typical of the city is the great building of the Zion's Co-operative Mercantile Institution, a concern established by Brigham Young in 1868 — there are several large factories connected with it, and its annual sales average more than $5,000,000. A monument to Brigham Young and the Utah Pioneers, crowned by a statue of Brigham Young, by C. E. Dallin, was unveiled in 1897, at the intersection of Main and Brigham Streets. The city has numerous hospitals and charities, and there is a state penitentiary here. In the S.E. part is the Judge Miner's Home and Hospital (Roman Catholic), a memorial to John Judge, a successful Utah miner. Salt Lake City has a good public school system In the city is the University of Utah, chartered in 1850 as the University of the state of Deseret and opened in November 1850; it was practically dis- continued from 1851 until 1867, and then was scarcely more than a business college until 1869; its charter was amended in 1884 and a new charter was issued in 1894, when the present style of the cor- poration was assumed; in 1894 60 acres from the Fort Douglas reservation were secured for the campus. _ In 1909-1910 the university consisted of a school of arts and sciences, a state school of mines (1901), a normal school, and a preparatory department. Other institutions of learning are : the Latter-Day Saints University (1887) and the Latter-Day Saints High School, St Mary's Academy (1875; under the Roman Catholic Sisters of the Holy Cross), All Hallows College (1886; Roman Catholic), Gordon Academy (1870; Congregational),Rowland Hall Academy ( 1 880 ; Protestant Episcopal) SALTO— SALTPETRE 93 and Westminster College (1897; Presbyterian). There is a state Art Institute, which gives an annual exhibition, provides for a course of public lectures on art, and houses in its building the state art collection. The city has always been interested in music and the drama: the regular choir of 500 voices of the Mormon Tabernacle (organized in 1890) is one of the best choruses in the country, and closely connected with its development are the Symphony Orchestra and the Salt Lake Choral Society. Brigham Young was an admirer of the drama, and the Salt Lake Theatre (1862) has had a brilliant history. There is a Young Men's Christian Association (organized in 1890). The principal clubs are the Alta, University, Commercial, Country, and Women's. There are a Masonic Temple and buildings of the Elks and Odd Fellows. Salt Lake City is the great business centre of Utah and one of the main shipping points of the West for agricultural products, live stock (especially sheep), precious metals and coal; and the excellent railway facilities contribute greatly to the commercial importance of the city. In 1905 the value of the factory products was $7,543,983, being 76-3% more than in 1900 and being nearly one-fifth of the total value of the factory products of all Utah. There are three large steam-car repair shops in the city. Among the more valuable manufactures are: newspapers, books, &c. ($924,495 in 1905), malt liquors, confectionery, flour, foundry and machine-shop products, dairy products, salt, knit goods, mattresses, sugar, cement, &c. Electricity is largely used in the newer factories, the power being derived from Ogden river, near Ogden, about 35 m. away, and from cataracts in Cottonwood canyon and other canyons. The city is governed under a charter of 1851. The government is in the hands of a mayor, elected for two years, and of a unicameral municipal council, consisting of 15 members, elected from the five wards of the city for two years or for four years. The municipality owns the water works. In 1909 the assessed valuation, real and personal, was $52,180,789; the tax levy was $677,411; and the city debt was $4,399,400 (exclusive of $1,528,000, the bonded in- debtedness of the city schools). The history of the city is largely that of the Mormons (q.v.) and in its earlier years that of Utah (q.v.). The Mormons first came here in 1847; an advance party led by Orson Pratt and Erastus Snow entered the Salt Lake Valley on the 22nd of July. President Brigham Young upon his arrival on the 24th approved of the site, saying that he had seen it before in a vision; on the 28th of July he chose the site for the temple. In August the city was named " the City of the Great Salt Lake," and this name was used until 1868 when the adjective was dropped by legislative act. In the autumn the major body of the pioneers arrived. The first government was purely ecclesiastical, the city being a " stake of Zion " under a president; " Father " Joseph Smith was the first president. The gold excitement of 1849 and the following years was the source of the city's first prosperity: the Mormons did not attempt to do any mining — Brigham Young counselled them not to abandon agriculture for prospecting — but they made themselves rich by outfitting those of the gold-seekers who went to California overland and who stopped at the City of the Great Salt Lake, the westernmost settlement of any importance. On the 4th of March 1849 a convention met here which appointed a committee to draft a constitution; the constitution was immediately adopted, the independent state of Deseret was organized and on the I2th of March the first general election was held. In 1850 the city had a population of 6000, more than half the total number of inhabitants of the Great Salt Lake Valley, which, as well as the rest of Utah, was largely settled from Salt Lake City. In January 1851 the general assembly of the state of Deseret chartered the city; and the first municipal election was held in April of the same year; the charter was amended in 1865. Immigration from Europe and especially from England was large in the earlier years of the city, beginning in 1848. Salt Lake City was promin- ently identified with the Mormon church in its struggle with the United States government; in 1858 it was entirely deserted upon the approach of the United States troops. Since the Civil War, the non-Mormon element (locally called " Gentile ") has steadily increased in strength, partly because of industrial changes and partly because the city is the natural point of attack on the Mormon church of other denominations, which are comparatively stronger here than elsewhere in Utah. See the bibliography under MORMONS and under UTAH; and particularly E. W. Tullidge, History of Salt Lake City (Salt Lake City, 1886). the famous descriptions in Captain Stansbury's report (1850), and in R. F. Burton's The City of the Saints (1861), and H. H. Bancroft, History of Utah (San Francisco, 1890). SALTO, a town and river port of Uruguay and capital of a department of the same name, on the Uruguay river 60 m. above Paysandu. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000. It has railway con- nexion with Montevideo via Paysandu and Rio Negro (394 m.), and with Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian frontier (113 m.). It is also connected with Montevideo and Buenos Aires by river steamers, Salto being at the head 4>f high water navigation for large vessels. There are reefs and rocks in the river between Paysandu and Salto that make navigation dangerous except at high water. Above Salto the river is obstructed by reefs all the way up to the Brazilian frontier, about 95 m., and is navigable for light-draft vessels only at high water. Farther up, the river is freely navigable to Santo Tom6 (Argentina) — a distance of about 1 70 m. Travellers wishing to ascend the river above Salto usually cross to Concordia, Entre Rios, and go up by railway to Ceibo, near Monte Caseros, from which point small steamers ascend to Uruguayana, Itaqui, and other river ports. The streets of Salto are well paved and lighted with electricity, and there are some good public buildings. The town has two meat-curing establishments (saladeros) and is the shipping port for north-western Uruguay and, to some extent, for western Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). Behind Salto lies a rich, undulating grazing country, whose large herds supply its chief exports. The department of Salta — area, 4866 sq. m., pop. (1900) 40,589, (1907, estimate) 53,154 — is an undulating, well-watered region occupying the north-west angle of Uruguay. Its industries are almost exclusively pastoral About one-third of its population are foreigners, chiefly Brazilians. SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, petra, a rock), the commercial name given to three naturally occurring nitrates, distinguished as (i) ordinary saltpetre, nitre, or potassium nitrate, (2) Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre, or sodium nitrate, (3) wall-saltpetre or calcium nitrate. These nitrates generally occur as efflorescences caused by the oxidation of nitrogenous matter in the presence of the alkalies and alkaline earths. i. Ordinary Saltpetre or Potassium Nitrate, KNOs, occurs, mingled with other nitrates, on the surface and in the superficial layers of the soil in many countries, especially in certain parts of India, Persia, Arabia and Spain. The deposits in the great limestone caves of Kentucky, Virginia and Indiana have been probably derived from the overlying soil and accumulated by percolating water; they are of no commercial value. The actual formation of this salt is not quite clear; but it is certainly conditioned by the simultaneous contact of decaying nitrogenous matter, alkalies, air and moisture. The demand for saltpetre as an ingredient of gunpowder led to the formation of saltpetre plantations or nitriaries, which at one time were common in France, Germany, and other countries; the natural conditions were simulated by exposing heaps of decaying organic matter mixed with alkalies (lime, &c.) to atmospheric action. The salt is obtained from the soil in which it occurs naturally, or from the heaps in which it is formed artificially, by extracting with water, and adding to the solution wood-ashes or potassium carbonate. The liquid is filtered and then crystallized. Since potassium nitrate is generally more serviceable than the sodium salt, whose deliquescent properties inhibit its use for gunpowder manufacture, the latter salt, of which immense natural deposits occur (see below (2) Chile saltpetre), is converted into ordinary saltpetre in immense quantities. This is generally effected by adding the calculated amount of potassium chloride (of which immense quantities are obtained as a by-product in the Stassfurt salt industry) dissolved in hot water to a saturated boiling solution of sodium nitrate; the common salt, which separates on boiling down the solution, is removed from the hot solution, and on cooling* the potassium nitrate crystallizes out and is separated and dried. As found in nature, saltpetre generally forms aggregates of delicate acicular crystals, and sometimes silky tufts; distinctly developed crystals are not found in nature. When crystallized from water, crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system, and having a prism angle of 61° 10', are obtained; they are often twinned on the prism planes, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal groups resembling aragonite. There are perfect cleavages 94 SALT RANGE— SALUTATIONS parallel to the dome (on). The hardness is 2, and the specific gravity 2-1. It is fairly soluble in water; 100 parts at o° dis- solving 13-3 parts of the salt, and about 30 parts at 20°; the most saturated solution contains 327-4 parts of the salt in 100 of water; this solution boils at 114-1°. It fuses at 339° to a colourless liquid, which solidifies on cooling to a white fibrous mass, known in pharmacy as sal prunella. It is an energetic oxidizing agent, and on this property its most important applica- tions depend. At a red heat it evolves oxygen with the formation of potassium nitrite, which, in turn, decomposes at a higher temperature. Heated with many metals it converts them into oxides, and with combustible substances, such as charcoal, sulphur, &c., a most intense conflagration occurs. Its chief uses are in glass-making to promote fluidity, in metallurgy to oxidize impurities, as a constituent of gunpowder and in pyrotechny; it is also used in the manufacture of nitric acid. Potassium nitrate was used at one time in many different diseased conditions, but it is now never administered internally, as its extremely depressant action upon the heart is not com- pensated for by any useful properties which are not possessed by many other drugs. One most valuable use it has, however, in the treatment of asthma. All nitrites (e.g. sodium nitrite, ethyl nitrite, amyl nitrite) cause relaxation of involuntary muscular fibre and therefore relieve the asthmatic attacks, which depend upon spasm of the involuntary muscles in the bronchial tubes. Saltpetre may be made to act as a nitrite by dissolving it in water in the strength of about fifty grains to the ounce, soaking blotting-paper in the solution and letting the paper dry. Pieces about 2 in. square are then successively put into a jar and lighted. The patient inhales the fumes, which contain a considerable proportion of nitrogen oxides. This treatment is frequently very successful indeed in relaxing the bronchial spasm upon which the most obvious features of an attack depend. 2. Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre or sodium nitrate, NaNOj, occurs under the same conditions as ordinary saltpetre in deposits covering immense areas in South America, which are known locally as caliche or terra salitrosa, and abound especially in the provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta in Chile. The nitrate fields are confined to a narrow strip of country, averaging 2j m. in width, situated on the eastern slopes of the coast ranges and extending from north to south for 260 geographical miles, between the latitudes 25° 45' and 19° 12' S. The nitrate forms beds, varying in thickness from 6 in. to 12 ft., under a covering of conglomerate locally known as lostra, which is itself overlain by a loose sandy soil. The conglomerate consists of rock fragments, sodium chloride and various sulphates, cemented together by gypsum to form a hard compact mass 6 to 10 ft. in thickness. The caliche has often a granular structure, and is yellowish- white, bright lemon-yellow, brownish or violet in colour. It contains from 48 to 75% of sodium nitrate and from 20 to 40% of common salt, which are associated with various minor saline components, including sodium iodate and more or less insoluble mineral, and also some organic matter, e.g. guano, which suggests the idea that the nitrate was formed by the nitrification of this kind of excremental matter. The caliche is worked up in loco for crude nitrate by ex- tracting the salts with hot water, allowing the suspended earth to settle, and then transferring the clarified liquor, first to a cistern where it deposits part of its sodium chloride at a high temperature, and then to _another where, on cooling, it yields a crop of crystals of purified nitrate. The nitre thus refined is exported chiefly from Valparaiso, whence the name of " Chile saltpetre." The mother liquors used to be thrown away, but are now utilized for the extrac- tion of their iodine (q.v.). Chemically pure sodium nitrate can be obtained by repeated recrystallization of Chile saltpetre or by synthesis. It forms colour- less, transparent rhombohedra, like those of Iceland spar; the angles are nearly equal to right angles, being 73° 30', so that the crystals look like cubes: hence the name of cubic saltpetre." There are perfect cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral faces, and the crystals exhibit a strong negative double refraction, like calcite. One hundred parts of water at o° and at 100° dissolve 72-9 and 180 parts of the salt; at 120" the boiling-point of the saturated solution, 216 parts. The salt fuses at 316"; at higher temperatures it loses oxygen (more readily than the corresponding potassium salt) with the formation of nitrite which, at very high temperatures, is reduced ultimately to a mixture of peroxide, Na,Oj, and oxide, NasO. The chief applications of Chile saltpetre are in the nitric acid industry, and in the manufacture of ordinary saltpetre for making gunpowder, ordinary Chile saltpetre being unsuitable by reason of its deliquescent nature, a property, however, not exhibited by the perfectly pure salt. It is also employed as a manure. For references to memoirs descriptive of the Chilian nitrate deposits, see G. P. Merrill, The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904). 3. Wall-saltpetre or lime saltpetre, calcium nitrate, Ca(NOj)2, is found as an efflorescence on the walls of stables; it is now manu- factured in large quantities by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, i.e. by passing a powerful electric arc discharge through moist air and absorbing the nitric acid formed by lime. Its chief applications are as a manure and in the nitric acid industry. SALT RANGE, a hill system in the Punjab and North-Wcst Frontier Provinces of India, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock-salt. The range commences in Jhelum district in the lofty hill of Chel (3701 ft.), on the right bank of the river Jhelum, traverses Shahpur district, crosses the Indus in Mianwali district, thence a southern branch forms the boundary between Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan until it finally merges in the Waziristan system of mountains. The salt range contains the great mines of Mayo, Warcha and Kalabagh, which yield an inexhaustible supply of salt, and supply the wants of all Northern India. Coal of an inferior quality is also found. SALTYKOV (STCHEDRIN), MICHAEL EVGRAFOVICH (1826- (1889), Russian satirist, was born on his father's estate in the province of Tula, isth (27th) January 1826. His early education was completely neglected, and his youth, owing to the severity and the domestic quarrels of his parents, was full of the most melancholy experiences. Left entirely to himself, he developed a love for reading; but the only book in his father's house was the Bible, which he studied with deep attention. At ten years of age he entered the Moscow Institute for the sons of the nobility, and subsequently the Lyceum at St Petersburg, where Prince Lobanov Rostofski, afterwards minister for foreign affairs, was one of his schoolfellows. While there he published poetry, and translations of some of the works of Byron and Heine; and on leaving the Lyceum he obtained employment as a clerk in the Ministry of War. In 1884 he published Zaputennoye Dyelo (" A Complicated Affair "), which, in view of the revolutionary movements at that time in France and Germany, was the cause of his banishment to Vyatka, where he spent eight years as a minor government official. This experience enabled him to study the life and habits of civil servants in the interior, and to give a clever picture of Russian provincial officials in his Gubernskie Otcherki (" Provincial Sketches "). On] his return to St Peters- burg as he was quickly promoted to administrative posts of con- siderable importance. After making a report on the condition of the Russian police, he was appointed deputy governor, first of Ryazan and then of Tver. His predilection for literary work induced him to leave the government service, but pecuniary difficulties soon compelled him to re-enter it, and in 1864 he was appointed president of the local boards of taxation succes- sively at Penza, Tula and Ryazan. In 1868 he finally quitted the civil service. Subsequently he wrote his principal works, namely, Poshekftonskaya Starina (" The Old Times of Poshek- hona "), which possesses a certain autobiographical interest; Istoria odnavo Goroda (" The History of a Town ") ; A Satirical History of Russia; Messieurs et Mesdames Pompadours; and Messieurs Golovlof. At one time, after the death of the poet Nekrasov, he acted as editor of a leading Russian magazine, the Contemporary. He died in St Petersburg on the 3oth of April (i2th May) 1889. (G. D.) SALUS, in Roman mythology the personification of health and prosperity. In 302 B.C. a temple was dedicated to Salus on the Quirinal (Livy x. i); and in later times public prayers were offered to her on behalf of the emperor and the Roman people at the beginning of the year, in time of sickness, and on the emperor's birthday. In 180 B.C., on the occasion of a plague, vows were made to Apollo, Aesculapius and Salus (Livy xl. 37). Here the special attribute of the goddess appears to be health ; and in later times she was identified with the Greek goddess of health, Hygieia. SALUTATIONS, or GREETINGS, the customary forms of kindly or respectful address, especially on meeting or parting or on occasions of ceremonious approach. Etymologically the word salutation (Lat. salutatio, " wishing health ") refers only to words spoken. SALUTATIONS 95 Forms of salutation frequent among savages and barbarians may last on almost unchanged in civilized custom. The habit of affectionate clasping or embracing is seen at the meetings of the Andaman islanders and Australian blacks, or where the Fuegians in friendly salute hug "like the grip of a bear."1 This natural gesture appears in old Semitic and Aryan custom : " Esau ran to meet him (Jacob) and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept " (Gen. xxxiii. 4) ; so, when Odysseus makes himself known, Philoetius and Eumaeus cast their arms round him with kisses on the head, hands and shoulders (Odyss. xxi. 223). The idea of the kiss being an instinctive gesture is negatived by its being unknown over half the world, where the prevailing salute is that by smelling or sniffing (often called by travellers " rubbing noses ") , which belongs to Polynesians, Malays, Burmese and other Indo-Chinese, Mongols, &c., extending thence eastward to the Eskimo and westward to Lapland, where Linnaeus saw relatives saluting by putting their noses together.2 This seems the only appearance of the habit in Europe. On the other hand the kiss, the salute by tasting, appears constantly in Semitic and Aryan antiquity, as in the above cases from the book of Genesis and the Odyssey, or in Herodotus's description of the Persians of his time kissing one another — if equals on the mouth, if one was somewhat inferior on the cheek (Herod, i. 134). In Greece in the classic period it became customary to kiss the hand, breast or knee of a superior. In Rome the kisses of in- feriors became a burdensome civility (Martial xii. 59). The early Christians made it the sign of fellowship: "greet all the brethren with an holy kiss" (i Thess. v. 26; cf. Rom. xvi. 16, &c.). It early passed into more ceremonial form in the kiss of peace given to the newly baptized and in the celebration of the Eucharist;3 this is retained by the Oriental Church. After a time, however, its indiscriminate use between the sexes gave rise to scandals, and it was restricted by ecclesiastical regulations — men being only allowed to kiss men, and women women, and eventually in the Roman Church the ceremonial kiss at the communion being only exchanged by the ministers, but a relic or cross called an osculatorium or pax being carried to the people to be kissed.4 While the kiss has thus been adopted as a re- ligious rite, its original social use has continued. Among men, however, it has become less effusive, the alteration being marked in England at the end of the I7th century by such passages as the advice to Sir Wilfull by his London-bred brother: " in the country, where great lubberly brothers slabber and kiss one another when they meet; . . . 'T is not the fashion here."' Court ceremonial keeps up the kiss on the cheek between sovereigns and the kissing of the hand by subjects, and the pope, like a Roman emperor, receives the kiss on his foot. A curious trace which these osculations have left behind is that when ceasing to be performed they are still talked of by way of politeness: Austrians say, " Ktiss d'Hand!" and Spaniards, "Beso a Vd. las manos!" "I kiss your hands!" Strokings, pattings and other caresses have been turned to use as salutations, but have not a wide enough range to make them im- portant. Weeping for joy, often occurring naturally at meetings, is sometimes affected as a salutation ; but this seems to be different from the highly ceremonious weeping performed by several rude races when, meeting after absence, they renew the lamentations over those friends who have died in the meantime. The typical case is that of the Australian natives, where the male nearest of kin presses his breast to the new comer's, and the nearest female relative, with piteous lamentations, embraces his knees with one hand, while with the other she scratches her face till the blood drops.6 Obviously this is no joy-weeping, but mourning, and the same is true of the New Zealand tangi, which is performed at the reception of a distinguished visitor, whether he has really dead friends to mourn or not.7 Cowering or crouching is a natural gesture of fear or inability to resist that belongs to the brutes as well as man ; its extreme form is lying prostrate face to ground. In barbaric society, as soon as 1 W. P. Snow in Trans. Ethnol. Soc., n.s., i. 263. ^ J. E. Smith, Linnaeus's Tour in Lapland, i. 315. 3 Bingham, Antiquities of the Chr. Church, bk. xii. c. 4, xv. c. 3. 4 The latter term has supplied the Irish language with its term for a kiss, pog, Welsh poc ; see Rhys, Revue Celtique, vi. 43. 5 Congreve's Way of the World, act iii. 6 Grey, Journals, ii. 255. 7 A. Taylor, New Zealand, p. 221. distinctions are marked between master and slave, chief and com- moner, these tokens of submission become salutations. The sculp- tures of Egypt and Assyria show the lowly prostrations of the ancient East, while in Dahomey or Siam subjects crawl before the king, and even Siberian peasants grovel and kiss the dust before a noble. A later stage is to suggest, but not actually perform, the prostration, as the Arab bends his hand to the ground and puts it to his lips or forehead, or the Tongan would touch the sole of a chief's foot, thus symbolically placing himself under his feet. Kneeling prevails in the middle stages of culture, as in the ceremonial of China ; Hebrew custom sets it rather apart as an act of homage to a deity (i Kings xix. 18; Isa. xlv. 23); medieval Europe distinguishes between kneeling in worship on both knees and on one knee only in homage, as in the Boke of Curlasye (i£th century) : — " Be curtayse to god, and knele doun On bothe knees with grete deuocioun; To mon {>ou shalle knele opon be ton, |>e tojier to £y self £ou halde alofi." Bowing, as a salute of reverence, appears in its extreme in Oriental custom, as among the ancient Israelites: " bowed himself to the ground seven times " (Gen. xxxiii. 3).* The Chinese according to the degree of respect implied bow kneeling or standing.9 The bowing salutation, varying in Europe from something less than the Eastern salaam down to the slightest inclination of the head, is interesting from being given mutually, the two saluters each making the sign of submission to the other, which would have been absurd till the sign passed into mere civility. Uncovering is a common mode of salutation, originally a sign of disarming or defencelessness or destitution in the presence of a superior. Polynesian or African chiefs require more or less stripping, such as the uncovering to the waist which Captain Cook describes in Tahiti.10 Taking off the hat by men has for ages been the accepted mode in the Western world. Modern usage has moderated this bowing and scraping (the scrape is throwing back the right leg as the body is bent forward), as well as the curtseys (courtoisie) of women. Some Eastern nations are apt to see disrespect in baring the head, but insist on the feet being un- covered. Burma was agitated for years by " the great shoe question," whether Europeans should be called on to conform to native custom rather than their own, by taking off their shoes to enter the royal presence.11 Grasping hands is a gesture which makes its appearance m antiquity as a legal act symbolic of the parties joining in compact, peace or friendship; this is well seen in marriage, where the hand grasp was part of the ancient Hindu ceremony, as was the " dex- trarum junctio " in Rome, which passed on into the Christian rite. In the classic world we see it passing into a mere salutation, as where the tiresome acquaintance met by Horace on his stroll along the Via Sacra seizes his hand (Hor., Sat. i. 9). Giving the right hand of fellowship (Gal. ii. 9) passed naturally into a salutation throughout Christendom, and spread, probably from Byzantium, over the Moslem world. The emphatic form of the original gesture in " striking hands " is still used to make the greeting more hearty. The variety called in English " shaking hands " (Ger. Hande-schulteln) only appears to have become usual in the middle ages.12 In the Moslem legal form of joining hands the parties press their thumbs together.13 This has been adopted as a salute by African tribes. As to words of salutation, it is found even among the lower races that certain ordinary phrases have passed into formal greetings. Thus among the Tupis of Brazil, after the stranger's silent arrival in the hut, the master, who for a time had taken no notice of him, would say "Ereioube?" that is, "Art thou come?" to which the proper reply was, "Yes, I am come"!14 Many formulas express difference of rank and consequent respect, as where the Basuto salute their chiefs with Tamo, sevata I i.e. " Greeting, wild beast ! " Congo negroes returning from a journey salute their wives with an affectionate Okowe I but they meekly kneeling round him may not repeat the word, but must say Ka 1 ka 1 16 Among cultured nations, salutations are apt to be expressions of peace and goodwill, as in the Biblical instances, " Is it well with thee ? " (2 Kings iv. 26) ; " Peace to thee, and peace to thine house," &c. (i Sam. xxv. 6; see Ezra iv. 17). Such formulas run on from age to age, and the latter may be traced on to the Moslem greeting, Salam 'alaikumt "The peace be on you," to which the reply is Wa-'alaikum as-salam 1 " And on you be the peace (sc. of God) ! " This is an example how a greeting may become a pass-word among fellow-believers, for it is usually held that it may not be used by or to an infidel. From an epigram of Meleager (Anth., ed. Jacobs vii. 119; cf. Plautus, Poen. v. passim) we learn that, while the Syrian salutation was Shelom (" Peace ! "), the Phoenicians greeted by wishing life ('nxnn, the 8 See the Egyptian bow with one hand to the knee ; Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. • S. Wells Williams, Middle Kingdom, i. 801. 10 See references to these customs in Tylor, Early History of Mankind, ch. iii. 11 Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 158, 205. "See Tylor in Macmillan's Mag. (May 1882), p. 76. 13 Lane, Mod. Eg. i. 219. 14 Jean de Lery, part ii. p. 204. 16 Magyar, Reise in Siid-Afrika. 96 SALUZZO— SALVADOR Kin, &c., of Neo-Punic gravestones). The cognate Babylonian form, " O king, live for ever!" (Dan. iii. 9), represents a series of phrases which continue still in the Vivat rexl " Long live the king! " The Greeks said xoTpe, " Be joyful!" both at meeting and parting; the Pythagorean vytalvtiv and the Platonic «D irp&TTfiv, wish health; at a later time Aairdfo^ai, "I greet!" came into fashion. The Romans applied Salve I " Be in health!" especially to meeting, and Valet " Be well!" to parting. In the modern civilized world, everywhere, the old inquiry after health appears, the " How do you do ? becoming so formal as often to be said on both sides without either waiting For-an answer. Hardly less wide in range is the set of phrases " Good day ! " " Good night ! " &c., varying according to the hour and translating into every language of Christendom. Among other European phrases, some correspond to our " welcome!" and "farewell! " while the religious element enters into another class, exemplified by our "Good-bye!" ("God be with you!"), and French Adieut Attempts have been made to shape European greetings into expressions of orthodoxy, or even tests of belief, but they have had no great success. Examples are a Protestant German salutation "Lobe Jesum Christuml" answered by "In Ewigkeit, Ament" and the formula which in Spain enforces the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, " Ave Maria purisima!" answered by "Sin pecado concebidal" On the whole, though the half-meaning- less forms of salutation may often seem ridiculous, society would not carry them on so universally unless it found them useful. They serve the purpose of keeping up social intercourse, and establishing relations between the parties in an interview, of which their tone may strike the keynote. (E. B. T.) SALUZZO, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 42 m. S. of Turin by rail, 1296 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,306 (town), 16,208 (commune). The upper town preserves some part of the fortifications which pro- tected it when, previous to the plague of 1630, the city had upwards of 30,000 inhabitants. The old castle of the marquises of Saluzzo now serves as a prison. Besides the Gothic cathedral (1480-1511), with the tombs of the marquises, the churches of San Giovanni (formerly San Domenico), San Bernardo and the Casa Cavazza, now the municipal museum, are noteworthy. Railways run to Cuneo and Airasca (the latter on the Turin- Pinerolo line) and steam tramways in various directions. The castle of Manta, in the vicinity, contains interesting 15th-century frescoes by a French artist (see P. d'Ancona in L'Arte for 1905; 94, p. 184). The line of the marquises of Saluzzo began (1142) with Manfred, son of Boniface, marquis of Savona, and continued till 1548, when the city and territory were seized by the French. The marquises being opponents of the house of Savoy, and taking part in the struggles between France and the empire, the city often suffered severely from the fortunes of war. Henry IV. restored the marquis- ate to Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy at the peace of Lyons in 1601. Among the celebrities of Saluzzo are Silvio Pellico, Bodoni, the famous printer of Parma of the late 1 8th and early igth centuries, and Casalis the historian of Sardinia. The history of the marquisate was written by Delfino Muletti (5 vols., 1829-1833). SALVADOR, or SAN SALVADOR (RepHblica del Salvador), the smallest but most densely peopled of the republics of Central America, bounded on the N. and E. by Honduras, S. by the Pacific Ocean, and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1906) 1,116,253; area, about 7225 sq. m. Salvador has a coastline extending for about 160 m. from the mouth of the Rio de la Paz to that of the Goascoran in the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.). Its length from E. to W. is 140 m., and its average breadth about 60 m. Physical Features. — With the exception of a comparatively narrow seaboard of low alluvial plains, the .country consists mainly of a plateau about 2000 ft. above the sea, broken by a large number of volcanic cones. These are geologically of more recent origin than the main chain of the Cordillera which rises farther N. The principal river of the republic is the Rio Lempa, which, rising just beyond the frontier of Guatemala and crossing a corner of Honduras, enters Salvador N. of Citala. After receiving the surplus waters of the Laguna de Guija, it flows E. through a magnificent valley between the plateau and the Cordillera, and then turning S. skirts the base of the volcano of Siguatepeque and reaches the Pacific in 88° 40' W. Among its numerous tributaries are the Rio Santa Ana, rising near the city of that name, the Asalguate, which passes the capital San Salvador, the Sumpul, and the Torola, draining the N.E. of Salvador and part of Honduras. The Lempa is for two-thirds of its course navigable by small steamers. The Rio San Miguel drains the country between the bay of Fonseca and the basin of the Lempa. The volcanic mountains do not form a chain but a series of clusters: the Izalco group in the W. — including Izalco (formed in 1770), Marcelino, Santa Ana, Naranjos, Aguila, San Juan de Dios, Apaneca, Tamajaso and Lagunita; the San Salvador group, about 30 m. E.; Cojute- peque to the N.E. and the San Vicente group to the E. of the great volcanic lake of Ilopango; the Siguatepeque summits to the N.E. of San Vicente; and the great S.E. or San Miguel group — San Miguel, Chinameca, Buenapa, Usulatan, Tecapa, Taburete. Cacaguateque and Sociedad volcanoes in the N.E. belong to the inland Cordillera. Santa Ana (8300 ft.) and San Miguel (7120 ft.) are the loftiest volcanoes in the country. The neighbourhood of the capital is subject to earthquakes. San Miguel is described as one of the most treacherous burning mountains in America, sometimes several years in complete repose and then all at once bursting out with terrific fury. In 1870-1880 the Lake of Ilopango was the scene of a remarkable series of phenomena. With a length of 55 m. and a breadth of 45, it forms a rough parallelogram with deeply indented sides, and is surrounded in all directions by steep mountains except at the points where the villages of Asino and Apulo occupy little patches of level ground. Between the 3ist of December 1879 and the nth of January 1880 the lake rose 4 ft. above its level. The Jiboa, which flows out at the S.E., became, instead of a very shallow stream 20 ft. broad, a raging torrent which soon scooped out for itself in the volcanic rocks a channel 30 to 35 ft. deep. A rapid subsidence of the lake was thus produced, and by the 6th of March the level was 34! ft. below its maximum. Towards the centre of the lake a volcanic centre about 500 ft. in diameter rose 150 ft. above the water, surrounded by a number of small islands. Climate. — The lowlands are generally hot and, on the coast, malarial; but on the tablelands and mountain slopes of the interior the climate is temperate and healthy. There are only two seasons: the wet, which Salvadorians call winter, from May to October; and the dry, or summer, season, from November to April. In July and August there are high winds, followed by torrents of rain and thunderstorms; in September and October the rain, not heavy, is continuous. For an account of the geology, fauna and flora of Salvador, see CENTRAL AMERICA. Inhabitants. — The population in 1887 was stated to be 664,513, (1901) 1,006,848, (1906) 1,116,253. The number of Ladinos (whites and persons of mixed blood) is about 775,000 and of Indians about 230,000. The various elements were, before 1901, estimated as follows, and the proportion still holds good in the main: whites (creoles and foreigners) 10%, half-castes 50%, Indians 40%, and a very small proportion of negroes. The whites of pure blood are very few, a liberal estimate putting the proportion at 2-5%. There is no immigration into the country, and the rapid increase with which the population is credited can be due only to a large surplus of births over deaths. The chief towns, which are described in separate articles, comprise San Salvador the capital (pop. 1905, about 60,000), Santa Ana (48,000), San Miguel (25,000), San Vicente (18,000), Sonsonate (17,000), Nueva San Salvador or Santa Tecla (18,000) and the seaport of La Union (4000). For the ancient Indian civilization of Salvador, see CENTRAL AMERICA: Archaeology, and MEXICO: History. Agriculture. — The only industry extensively carried on is agriculture, but the methods employed are still primitive. The more important products are coffee, sugar, indigo and balsam. The country is rich in medicinal plants. Peruvian balsam (Myrospermum Salvatorense or Myroxylon Pereirae) is an indi- genous balm, rare except on the Balsam Coast, as the region about Cape Remedies is named. It is not cultivated in Peru, but owes its name to the fact that, during the early period of Spanish rule, it was forwarded to the Peruvian port of Callao for tran- shipment to Europe. Rubber is collected; tobacco is grown in small quantities; cocoa, rice, cereals and fruits are cultivated. The government seeks to encourage cotton-growing, and has SALVAGE 97 established in the suburbs of the capital an agricultural college and model farm. Mining. — In the Cordillera, which runs through Salvador, there are veins of various metals — gold, silver, copper, mercury and lead being found mostly in the E., and iron in the W. Coal has been discovered at various points in the valley of the Lempa. In the republic there are about 180 mining establishments, about half of them [being in the department of Morazan; they are owned by British, United States and Salvadorian companies. Only gold and silver are worked. The output, chiefly gold, was valued at £250,000 in 1907. Commerce. — The trade of Salvador is almost entirely confined to the import of cotton goods, woollen goods, sacks and machinery, and to the export of coffee and a few other agricul- tural products. In 1900 the formation of a statistical office was decreed. The average yearly value of the imports for the five years 1904-1908 was £804,000, of the exports £1,250,000. The coffee exported in 1908 was valued at £830,000. The imports, comprising foodstuffs, hardware, drugs, cottons, silk and yarn, come (in order of value) chiefly from Great Britain, the United States, France and Germany; the exports are mostly to the United States and France. Shipping and Communications. — Until 1855 the roads of Salvador were little better than bridle-paths, and fords or ferries were the sole means of crossing the larger rivers. During the next half-century about 2000 m. of highways were built, and the rivers were bridged. The first railway, a narrow-gauge line, between the port of Acajutla and Sonsonate, was opened in 1882, and afterwards extended to Ateos on the E. and Santa Ana on the N.W. A railway from the capital to Niieva San Salvador was also constructed, and in 1900 was linked to the older system by a line from Ateos to San Salvador. In 1903, a concession was granted for an extension from Nueva San Salvador to the port of La Libertad. From 350 to 450 vessels annually entered and cleared at Salvadorian ports (chiefly Acajutla, La Libertad and La Union), during the years 1895 to 1905. The old port of Acajutla has been closed, and a new port opened in a more sheltered position about i m. N., where an iron pier, warehouses and custom-house have been erected. Salvador joined the postal union in 1879. Currency and Credit. — In 1910 there were three commercial banks and an agricultural bank within the republic. In 1897 a law was passed adopting a gold standard. The currency of the country in 1910 consisted entirely of silver pesos, the fractional money under -900 fine having, by arrangement with the govern- ment, been all exported by the banks. The peso or dollar at par is valued at four shillings; its actual value was about is. 8d. in 1910. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted by decree of January 1886, but the old Spanish weights and measures still continue in general use. Finance. — The revenue is mainly derived from import and export duties, but considerable sums are also obtained from excise, and smaller amounts from stamps and other sources. The principal branches of expenditure are the public debt, defence and internal administration. The official figures showing the revenue and expenditure for the five years 1904-1908 are as follows (pesos being converted into sterling at the rate of 12 to £!):- Years. Revenue. Expenditure. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 675,000 711,000 707,000 728,000 1,064,000 734,000 837,000 i ,024,000 886,000 1,019,000 The foreign debt, amounting to £726,420 (£240,000 of a 6% loan of 1889, and £485,720 of another of 1892) was in 1899 converted into 5 % mortgage debentures of the Salvador Railway Company Limited, to which the government has guaranteed, for eighteen years from the ist of January 1899, a fixed annual subsidy of £24,000. In March 1908 a new foreign loan was raised, amount- ing to £1,000,000. The bonds were issued at 86, and bore 6% xxrv. t. interest, secured partly upon the special import duty of $3.60 (American gold) on every kilogramme of imported merchandise, partly upon the export duty of 40 c. (American gold) on every quintal (100 Ib) of coffee up to 500,000 Ib. The 4% internal debt amounted in 1905 to £840,170. Government. — The constitution proclaimed in 1824, and modified in 1859, 1864, 1871, 1872, 1880, 1883 and 1886, vests the legislative power in a chamber of 70 deputies, including 42 landowners (3 for each department), all chosen by the direct vote of the people. The president and vice-president are likewise chosen by direct popular vote, and they hold office for 4 years. The president is not eligible for the presidency or vice-presidency during the following presidential term. He is assisted by 4 ministers. Local government is carried on in each of the 14 departments by governors appointed by the central executive. The municipalities are administered by officers (alcaldes, regi- dores, &c.) elected by the inhabitants. Religion and Education. — The Roman Catholic religion prevails throughout the republic, but there is complete religious freedom, so far as is compatible with public order. Civil marriage is legal, monastic institutions are prohibited, and education is in the hands of laymen. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. For secondary instruction there are about 20 higher schools, including 3 technical institutes, and 2 schools for teachers, one for men and the other for women — these five institutions being supported by the government. At San Salvador there is a national college for the higher education of women. Superior and professional instruction is provided at the national university in the capital. Justice is administered by a supreme court, and in district, circuit and local courts. The active ' army consists of about 3000 men, and the militia, of about 18,000. In time of war all males between the ages of eighteen and sixty are liable for service. The navy consists of one customs cruiser. History. — Salvador received its name from Pedro de Alvarado, who conquered it for Spain in 1525-26. Its independence of the Spanish Crown dates from 1822; (see CENTRAL AMERICA: History). Revolutions have been frequent. In July 1906 war broke out between Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, but was terminated within the month by the arbitration of the United States president (see as above). In 1907 Salvador supported Honduras (q.v.) against Nicaragua; its prosperity was not, however, seriously impaired by the defeat of its ally. See E. G. Squier, The States of Central America (London, 1868); D. Guzman, Apuntamientos sobre la topografia fisica de la republica del Salvador (San Salvador, 1883) ; D. Gonzalez, Datos sobre la republica de El Salvador (San Salvador, 1961 ) ; No. 58 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington, 1892); annual reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bond- holders (London) and of the British Foreign Office. SALVAGE (from Lat. salvus, safe). There is no general rule or principle of law which entitles one who saves the life or property of another to be rewarded by him. But in certain special classes of cases the law does require the appointed courts to reward those who by their exertions have rescued lives or property from probable damage or destruction. The reward so given is called salvage and the same word is often used to denote the service rewarded. Apart from the application of the term by analogy to the saving of property from fire on land, the recovery of property from destruction by the aid of voluntary payments (as in the case of payments to prevent the forfeiture of an insurance policy), or a solicitor's charges for property recovered by his means, the subject of salvage divides into (i) civil salvage, (2) military salvage. i. Civil Salvage in English law is defined as such a service as may become the ground of a reward in the (admiralty) court on the civil side of its jurisdiction, and consists in the preservation of life or property from some of the dangers of the sea. The jurisdiction to give it is an admiralty jurisdiction. But the right to reward was recognized in the courts of common law before the admiralty court became, as it now is, a part of the High Court of Justice, e.g. by enforcing a possessory lien of the salvor over the salved property. The origin of the rule has been traced 98 SALVAGE to the doctrine of Roman law that " spontaneous services " in the protection of lives and property should be rewarded. But that doctrine has not found a place in English law except, as part of the maritime law administered hi the court of admiralty. Thus services on land, say in rescuing lives or houses or goods from fire, do not entitle the person rendering those services to reward, unless he has acted under some contract or employment. But at sea the right to reward springs from the service itself if it has been rendered to a ship, or her passengers, crew or cargo, or to property which has been thrown or washed out of her. And such a service entitles to salvage though the ship may be in harbour, or within a river, or even in a dock. This connexion of the lives or property with a ship seems essential. The right does not arise upon saving goods which have got adrift in river or harbour, even if they have been washed out to sea, nor upon saving property of other kinds which may be in peril on the sea or on the seashore. Thus a claim to reward for saving a gas- buoy or beacon, which had broken from its moorings in the Upper Humber, and was aground on the Lincolnshire coast, was disallowed by the House of Lords, affirming the court of appeal, in the case of the gas-float " Whitton No. 2," 1897, A.C. 337- The definite right to salvage for saving lives from ships is the creation of modern statutes. Formerly the Admiralty judges treated the fact that lives had been saved as enhancing the merit of a salvage of property by the same salvors, where the two could be connected; and so indirectly gave life salvage. And this is still the position in cases where the Merchant Shipping Act of 1894 does not apply. This act (§544) applies to all cases in which the " services are rendered wholly or in part within British waters in saving life from any British or foreign vessel, or elsewhere in saving life from any British vessel." Also (§ 545) it can be applied, by Order in Council, to life salvage from ships of any foreign country whose government " is willing that salvage should be awarded by British courts for services rendered in saving life from ships belonging to that country where the ship is beyond the limits of British jurisdiction." By section 544 the life salvage is made payable " by the owner of the vessel, cargo or apparel saved"; and is to be paid in priority to all other claims for salvage. Where the value of the vessel, cargo and apparel saved is insufficient to pay the life salvage, the Board of Trade may in their discretion make up the deficiency, in whole or in part, out of the Mercantile Marine Fund. The effect of the act is to impose a common responsibility upon the owners of ship and cargo to the extent of their property saved. Whatever is saved becomes a fund out of which life salvors may be rewarded, and to which they are entitled in priority to other salvors. In the case of the cargo ex "Schiller" (1877, 3 P.D. 145) salvage was allowed out of specie raised by divers from the sunken wreck, to persons who had saved some of the passengers and crew. This limitation of liability to the amount of the property salved is also true with regard to salvage of property. The ordinary remedy of the salvor is against the property itself; by proceedings in rent, to enforce the maritime lien given him by the law upon that property. This enables him to arrest the property, if within the jurisdiction, into whose hands soever it may have come; and, if necessary, to obtain a sale, and payment of his claim out of the proceeds. The salvor has also a remedy in personam, used only in exceptional cases, against the owners or others interested in the property saved (Five steel barges, 15 P.D. 142); but it seems certain that that depends upon property having been saved, and having come to the owner's hands; and that the amount which can be awarded is limited by the value of that property. An essential condition is that the lives or property saved must have been in danger — either in immediate peril, or in a position of "difficulty and reasonable apprehension." Danger to the salvor is not essential, though it enhances his claim to reward; but to constitute a salvage service there must have been danger to the thing salved. Again, the service must have helped usefully towards saving the lives or property. Ineffectual efforts, however strenuous and meritorious, give rise to no claim. But the service need not be completely successful. If it has contributed to an ultimate rescue it will be rewarded, though that may have been accomplished by others. And as we have seen, there must have been ultimate success. Some of the property involved in the adventure must have been saved. And the value of that, or the fund realized by its sales, limits the total of the awards to all the salvors. Cases, of course, occur in which services at sea are employed by ships in danger: as where a steamer with a broken propeller shaft employs another steamer to tow her; or where a vessel which has lost her anchors employs another to procure anchors for her from shore. In such cases the conditions of reward above set out may not apply. Reward may be payable, notwithstanding entire failure of success, by the express or implied terms of the employment. But such a reward is not truly " salvage." Services rendered in the performance of a duty owed do not entitle to salvage. The policy of the law is to stimulate voluntary effort, not to weaken obligation. Thus the crew cannot (while still the crew) be salvors of the ship or cargo; nor can the passengers, unless they have voluntarily stayed on the ship for the purpose of saving her. Nor can a pilot employed as such be salvor, unless he has boarded her in such exceptional circum- stances that his doing so for pilotage fees could not reasonably be required; or unless the circumstances of the service, entered upon as pilotage, have so changed as to alter its character; and it may be doubted whether such a change of circumstances is a valid ground for a claim of salvage remuneration by the pilot where he has had no opportunity of leaving the ship. So again of the owners and crew of a tug employed to tow a ship. They cannot claim salvage for rescuing her from a danger which may arise during the towage, unless circumstances have super- vened which were not contemplated, and are such as to require extraordinary aid from the tug, or to expose her to extraordinary risk. Officers and crew of a ship of the royal navy may have salvage where they have rendered services outside the protec- tion which their ship ought to afford. But by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 557, such a claim must be with consent of the Admiralty; and no claim can be made in respect of the ship herself. The kinds and degrees of service are very various. The rewards given vary correspondingly. Regard is paid, first, to the degree of the danger to the property salved, to its value, and to the effect of the services rendered; next, to the risks run by the salvors, the length and severity of their efforts, the enterprise and skill displayed, and to the value and efficiency of the vessel or apparatus they have used, and the risks to which they have exposed her. In a modern case (the "Glengyle," 1898, A.C. 519) a specially large award was given to vessels kept constantly ready for salving operations in Gibraltar Bay. It was owing to that readiness that the rescue had been possible. On the other hand, any negligent or improper conduct of the salvors will be considered in diminution of the award: as where they have negligently exposed the ship to damage, or have plundered the cargo, or dealt with it contrary to the owner's interests. And where the rescue has been from a danger which was brought about by the negligent or improper conduct of those who effected the rescue, no salvage is allowed. So that where two colliding ships were both to blame for the collision, the master and crew of one of them were not allowed salvage for services in saving cargo of the other (cargo ex " Capella," L.R. i A. and E. 356). In apportioning the total award given for a salvage service among the owners, master and crew of the vessel by means of which it has been rendered, the special circumstances of each case have to be considered. In nearly all cases a large portion goes to the owners, and as in recent times the value and efficiency of ships (especially of steamships) have increased, so the propor- tion of the whole usually awarded to the owners has also increased. In an ordinary case of salvage by a steamship towing a distressed ship into safety, the share of the owners is usually about three- fourths; of the remainder the master usually gets about one-third, SALVAGE 99 and the officers and crew divide the rest in proportion to their ratings. But where the salving ship has sustained special damage in the service, or her owners have been put to loss by it, that is taken into account. On the other hand, where special personal services have been rendered by members of the crew they are specially rewarded. As an illustration take the case of the " Rasche " (L.R. 4 A. and E. 127). The brigantine " Rasche," derelict, was fallen in with by the ship " Scythia " (carrying a very valuable cargo) 220 m. N. of the Lizard. The mate and three hands of the " Scythia " were put on board, and in circumstances of much hardship and danger they brought her after eighteen days safely to Liverpool. After deducting expenses incurred by the owners of the " Scythia," the value of the property saved was £6294. Sir R. Phillimore awarded £3290; and of this he gave £600 to the mate, £510 to each of the three men who had accompanied him; £500 to the owners of the " Scythia " ; and £350 to her other officers and crew. AD agreement as to the salvage to be paid is sometimes made at the time the assistance is given. When made fairly the court will act upon it, though it may turn out to be a bad bargain for one or other of the parties. But if the facts were not correctly apprehended by one or both, or if the position was one of such difficulty that those salved had no real option as to accepting the salvor's terms, the courts will set the agreement aside. This happened, for instance, where the salving ship refused to rescue 550 wrecked pilgrims from the Parkin Rock in the Red Sea for a less sum than £4000. An agreement had in consequence been signed for their conveyance for that sum to Jedda, two or three days' sail. The Parkin Rock stands 6 ft. above the water, and had bad weather come on the lives would have been in great danger. It was held that the sum asked for was exorbitant; and that the agreement, made under practical compulsion, could not stand (the " Medina," 2 P.D. 5). On the other hand, an agreement to tow, for a fixed sum, a vessel which had suffered considerable damage, was set asjde, and salvage awarded, on the ground that the damaged condition had not been disclosed to the tug when the contract was made (the " Kingaloch," I Spink, 265). The award of salvage is generally made in one sum against ship, freight and cargo; and those interests contribute to the amount in proportion to the value saved. No distinction is made between the degree of service rendered to one interest and another. But, with a possible exception in the case of life salvage, there is not a joint liability of the several interests. Each is liable to the salvors for his own share, and for no more. The ship cannot be made to pay the cargo's share, nor the cargo the ship's. If, however, the shipowner pays the cargo's share, he has a lien upon it for the amount. In practice the liabilities for salvage are ordinarily adjusted as part of general average. Strictly, however, there is a difference. The liability to pay salvage is a direct liability to the salvors, arising at once, e.g. at the port of refuge, and proportional to the values there; whereas the liability to contribute to a general average loss or expenditure is postponed until the completion or break up of the adventure, and depends upon the values of the interests which have arrived there; which may be very different. (See AVERAGE, INSURANCE, Marine, and also ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION.) AUTHORITIES. — Kennedy, On the Law of Civil Salvage (London, 1907); Abbott, Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen (i4th ed,, London, 1901); Carver, Carriage by Sea (sth ed., London, 1909). (T. G. C.) 2. Military Salvage is analogous to civil salvage. It is defined as such a service as may become the ground for the demand of a reward in the court as a prize court, and consists in the rescue of property from the enemy in time of war. Such cases almost invariably relate to ships and their cargoes; and they have always been dealt with by courts having Admiralty jurisdiction, sitting as prize courts. They involve the determination of two questions : first, whether the property is to be restored to its original owner or condemned as prize to the recaptor ; and second, what amount of salvage, if any, is to accompany restitu- tion. Generally speaking, the first question depends upon the law of nations, which may be taken to be that where a ship has been carried by an enemy infra praesidia, and especially after a sentence of condemnation, the title of the original owner is divested, and does not revest upon recapture by third parties. In such a case, therefore, jure gentium restitution cannot be claimed. The municipal law of civilized countries, however, does not encourage subjects to " make reprisals upon one another " (the " Renard," Marr. Adm. Dec. 222), and laws are generally found, as in England, which as between subjects of that particular state provide for restitution irrespective of any change in the title to the subject matter which may have occurred. But (speaking henceforth of England) in cases which do not fall strictly within these acts, the old maritime law, which was in unison with the general kw of nations, is applied by the courts. Moreover, the English Prize Acts do not apply to foreign owners of recaptured prizes, and therefore no award can be made against them unless in accordance with the law of nations. In practice the courts have acted upon the " rule of reciprocity " where recaptures have been made of the property of formal allies, dealing with them as the allied state would have dealt with English property. In the case of neutral recaptures restitution is always ordered. An exception to the rule of restitution as between British subjects is made in the case of a British ship which has been " set forth as a ship of war " by the captor, and subsequently retaken by a British ship. Such a ship is not liable to restoration, but is the prize of the recaptor. This exception, the object of which is to encourage the capture of armed ships, dates from 1793, previous acts having provided for restitution upon payment of a moiety as salvage. The condition of setting forth as a ship of war is satisfied, where under a fair semblance of authority, which is not disproved, the ship " has been used in the operations of war, and constituted a part of the naval force of the enemy " (the " Ceylon," i Dod. 105). Such a user perma- nently obliterates the ship's original character, and extinguishes all future ckims to restitution (" L'Actif," Edw. 185). As to the right to salvage and the amount which will be allowed, this is also a question of the jus gentium, though usually governed by municipal law. The right was recognized so long ago as the nth century, when the " Consolato del Mare " (see CONSULATE OF THE SEA) laid down elaborate provisions on the subject. In England the first statutory recognition of the right occurs in 1648, when an act of the Commonwealth, which in its outline has been the model for all subsequent Prize Acts, provides that British vessels captured by an enemy and retaken by British ships shall be restored upon payment of one-eighth of the value of the property in lieu of salvage, or one-half in the case of a prize " set forth as a ship of war." From that date until 1864, the date of the act now in force, there have been thirteen Prize Acts dealing with recapture, each of which, except that of 1864, has been passed to meet a particular occasion, and has expired with the cessation of the then existing hostilities. Since the first act, and down to the act of 1805 inclusive, a distinction has always been drawn between a recapture effected by one of the royal ships of war and a recapture by a privateer or other vessel. In the former case the allowance has always been one-eighth, in the latter it varied, but was usually one-sixth. In the act of 1692 a clause taken from a Dutch law gave salvage to a privateer, rising in amount from one-eighth to one-half according to the number of hours the prize had been in the enemy's possession, but this clause has disappeared since 1756. There is no provision in the present act for the payment of salvage, except in case of re- capture by one of His Majesty's ships, but it seems beyond question that recaptors are entitled at law to salvage, although they may hold no commission from the crown. " It is the duty of every subject of the king to assist his fellow-subjects in war, and to retake their property in the possession of the enemy: no commission is necessary to give a person so employed a title to the reward which the policy of the law allots to that meritorious act of duty " (the " Helen," 3 C. Rob. 226, per Sir W. Scott). Though it is improbable that privateers will figure in any future war, it may reasonably be anticipated that recaptures may be made by private vessels, and in such cases salvage would probably be awarded, the proportion lying in the discretion of the court. Similarly, salvage is awarded in the case of recapture from pirates or from a mutinous crew. In the case of royal ships the present act allows one-eighth salvage, which in cases of " special difficulty or danger " the court may increase to a quarter. The latter provision is an innovation. IOO SALVAGE CORPS— SALVATION ARMY It may appear that the grant of salvage to ships of war, the duty of whose commanders it is, according to the naval instruc- tions, " if possible, to rescue any British vessel which he may find attacked or captured by the enemy, " needs some justifica- tion. Objections on this ground have never been seriously treated, it being urged that it is politic to encourage the under- taking of such enterprises, even where they coincide with the path of duty. Where, however, a transport was rescued from under the guns of an enemy by a ship of war, under whose charge she sailed, salvage was refused on the ground that the salvor was only doing what he was bound to do (the " Belle, " Edw. 66). So no salvage is due to a crew who rescue a ship from mutineers, this being only their duty under a subsisting contract (the " Governor Raffles," 2 Dod. 14). On the other hand, a crew who rescue their ship from the prize crew of a belligerent are entitled to salvage, since the capture discharges them from their contract with the owner, and they act as volunteers (the " Two Friends," i C. Rob. 271). In the case of a neutral captured by one belligerent and recaptured by the other, which has been already alluded to, no salvage is as a rule allowed, upon the supposition that if the vessel had been carried into the port of the enemy justice would have been done and the vessel restored. In the case of the French war at the opening of the igth century no such supposi- tion existed, and salvage was usually awarded on the recapture of neutral property from the French. (M. Bx.) SALVAGE CORPS. The London Salvage Corps is maintained by the fire offices of London. The corps was first formed in 1865 and began operations in March 1866. The staff of the corps when first formed consisted of 64. Since that time, owing to the many improvements that have taken place in the system of dealing with salvage, and the increase in the work to be done, the corps has necessarily been strengthened, and the staff now numbers over 100. The various stations of the corps are well placed, and the Metropolis has been mapped out so that when a fire takes place it may be attended to at the earliest possible moment. The headquarters are situated at Watling Street, which is called the No. i station, and this station protects the City of London enclosed by the Euston Road, Tottenham Court Road, City Road and the river Thames; this is known as the " B " district. No. 2 station is at Commercial Road, and attends to the whole of the E. and N.E. portion of London to the N. of the Thames, and is known as the " C " district. No. 3 station, opposite the headquarters of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Station in the Southwark Bridge Road, protects the whole of S. London, and is known as the " D " district. No. 4 station, at Shaftesbury Avenue, is called the " A " district, and covers the West End and Kensington. Finally, No. 5 station, in Upper Street, Islington, guards the parish of Islington. The working staff, which is mainly recruited from the royal navy, consists of the chief officer and a superintendent, foreman and crew of men at each station. The stations of the corps are connected by telephone with the fire brigade stations from whence the " calls " are received. In addition to the home staff, there is also a staff constantly employed during the day time in inspecting docks, wharves, Manchester goods and uptown warehouses, and reports are made weekly to the committee. Generally speaking, the work of the Corps may be divided into two distinct classes — (i) services at fires; (2) watching and working salvage. (i) Services at Fires form the most important feature of the work. Much depends upon the method of dealing with the salvage. If, for instance, a large Manchester goods warehouse was on fire in the top part, it would be very little advantage to the offices interested in the risk if the 'men were set to work removing the stock off the ground floor. The best method would be to cover up with tarpaulin all goods there, and prevent the water from collecting on the lower floors. It will be gathered that the most important work of the corps is to prevent damage to goods, and that water is mostly looked after. The damage from fire is left almost entirely to the fire brigade. The traps, which immediately on receipt of an alarm proceed to the scene of the fire with their crew of men, carry every kind of appliance for the saving of goods from destruction by fire or damage by water, as well as lime-light apparatus for use in working after the fire has been extinguished, thus enabling the men to note the position of dangerous walls, &c.; and a portable coal-gas apparatus, which can be employed in the interior of buildings when the ordinary means of illumination has failed; in addition to ambulance appliances for emergencies. (2) Working Salvage. — When a fire takes place, a man is left behind in charge of the salvage if the property is insured; or if that fact cannot be ascertained, but it appears probable that itis,a man is left until the information is obtained later. Theduty, if an important one, is divided into a day and night duty. This enables an experienced man to be sent on day duty to meet the surveyor, and to carry out his instructions regarding the working out of the salvage; and a junior man at night. The day man, if working out salvage, would employ a number of men called strangers, over whom he acts as a kind of foreman. The " working out " may take the form of dividing up damaged goods into lots ready for a sale to be held by the surveyor, or of sifting over the debris to find remains of certain articles claimed for. If, for instance, a large fire occurred at a pianoforte manufacturer's, and the debris was all in one common heap, the London Salvage Corps might have to arrange certain quantities of pegs and wires in order to give an idea of the number of pianos before the fire. The watching continues until the loss is settled, when the charge of the premises is given over to the assured. There are also salvage corps on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, in Liverpool and Glasgow. (C. J. F.) SALVANDY, NARCISSE ACHILLE (1795-1856), French politician, was born at Condom (Gers)on the nth of June 1795, of a poor family Irish by extraction. He entered the army in 1813, and next year was admitted to the household troops of Louis XVIII. A patriotic pamphlet on La Coalition el la France (1816) attracted the attention of Decazes, who employed him to disseminate his views in the press, and he waged war against the Villele ministry of 1822-1828. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party. Minister of education in the Mole cabinet of 1837-1839, and again in 1845, he superintended the reconstitution of the Council of Education, the foundation of the French School at Athens and the restoration of the Ecole des Charles. For short periods in i84r and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin, and became a member of the French Academy in 1 83 5. Under the Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron (Eure) on the i6th of December 1856. SALVATION ARMY, a religious philanthropic organization founded by William Booth (q.v.), who in 1865 began to hold meetings for preaching in the streets in London and in tents, music halls, theatres and other hired buildings. Large numbers attended, many of whom had never entered a place of worship, and presently an organized society was formed called " The Christian Mission." Booth was assisted by his wife, Catherine Booth, a woman of remarkable gifts, who won for the new movement the sympathy of many among the cultured classes. In 1878 the Mission, which had spread beyond London, was reorganized on a quasi-military basis, and the title of " The Salvation Army " was definitely adopted in June 1880. The local societies became " Corps," and their evangelists " Field Officers," with Booth as " General " of the whole body. The spiritual operations of the Army at once rapidly expanded in spite of much disorderly opposition in some places. In 1878 there were 75 corps and 120 officers in the United Kingdom, the amount contributed by the outside public being £1925. Since then the number of corps and officers has greatly increased. Very large numbers who have " professed conversion " are reported annually. No figures of membership, however, are published. In doctrine, the Army is in harmony with the main principles of the evangelical bodies, " as embodied in the three creeds of the Church." Its preaching is practical and direct, asseverating the reality of Sin, " the everlasting punishment of the wicked," and Redemption. The Army proclaims the SALVATION ARMY 101 supreme duty of self-sacrifice for the sake of the salvation of others. The Army is under the control of the General for the time being, who issues all orders and regulations. Large powers devolve upon other officers, such as the " Chief of the Staff," the " Foreign Secretary," and the " Chancellor," who direct affairs from the " International Headquarters " in London. The system of government is autocratic, " unquestioning obedience " being required throughout all ranks. The Army is divided, usually in harmony with national boundaries, into " territories," each under a " Commissioner," with headquarters in the capital of the country. The Territories are generally divided into " Provinces " and these again into " Divisions," which include a number of corps, each supporting its own " Captain " and " Lieutenant." The " soldiers " or members are drawn from all classes of the community. The property of the Army in the United Kingdom is held by the General for the time being, for the benefit of the Army exclusively, he being constituted the sole trustee of the property, in the disposal of which and in the appoint- ment of his successor he is placed under the government of a deed poll, executed by Booth while the body was still known as " The Christian Mission," and enrolled in the Court of Chancery in August 1878. In other countries various modifications have been necessary, but the General's ultimate con- trol has been practically assured. A further deed poll providing for the removal of a General in the contingency of " mental incapacity " or other " unfitness," and for the election of a successor, was executed by Booth in July 1904. Funds are raised from 'the voluntary offerings of the corps, from open-air and other collections, from friends interested in evangelical and chari- table work, and from the profits on publications and general trading. The financial statements of the various national headquarters funds are an- nually published, certified by public accountants, in each country. In 1909 the general income and expenditure account of International Head- quarters in London dealt with a total of £64,345. Details of the aggregate income raised in the United Kingdom by the corps are not pub- lished. The annual Self-Denial offering (Great Britain) was £12,663 in 1888, £72,562 in 1906 and £69,034 in 1910. The value of the assets of the spiritual work in the United Kingdom increased from £558,992 in 1891 to £1,357,706 in 1909, the liabilities on account of loans upon mortgage and otherwise amounting at the latter date to £662,235. The assets of the Trade Departments were valued at £110,657 in 1909. Statistics of Spiritual Operations (Compiled from the " S.A. Year Book, 1910 "). and was started with subscriptions amounting to over £100,000. A separate deed poll, making the General sole trustee, was executed by Booth in regard to the property and funds of this branch of work. Since then, both in Great Britain and abroad, the scheme has been actively carried on. The amount received in the year ending 3oth September 1909 for cheap food and lodging in the United Kingdom was returned at £42,022 for the men's work, and £6417 for the women's. Large numbers of unemployed, ex-criminal and other needy persons have been aided or dealt with. In the year ending 3oth September 1909, the number of persons received into the " elevators " or factories was reported as 6425, of women and girls received into rescue homes as 2559. The farm colony at Hadleigh in Essex has a large acreage under cultivation, with fruit and market gardens and various industrial undertakings. The emigration depart- ment, although a development of the Darkest England Scheme, has no connexion with the rescue work; in 1907 the passage money received amounted to £85,014, and in 1909 to £38,179. An " anti-suicide bureau " was opened in 1907, and at Boxted, near Colchester, a scheme for Small Holdings has been initiated. In 1909 the value of the property held under the Darkest England Scheme in the United Kingdom was returned at £329,645, and the income of the central fund at £50,594. Summary of Social Operations throughout the World (Compiled from the " S.A. Year-Book, 1910 "). Number of Institutions. TYit-al United Kingdom. Abroad. Total. 1 ( )1 1 1 1 Accommo- dation. Men's Work — Shelters and Food Depots . 3i 156 187 18,531 Labour Bureaus .... 8 5° 58 Labour Homes and Factories . 28 117 H5 4.936 Ex-criminal Homes i 18 18 486 Farm Colonies .... 2 15 17 Women's Work — Rescue and Maternity Homes . 32 107 139 3.469 Shelters and Food Depots 10 20 3° 1.934 Children's Homes and Creches . 2 57 59 Slum Posts .... 44 103 147 Other Social Institutions . . 17 87 104 Total Institutions 174 730 904 29.356 Total number of officers engaged exclusively in social work, 2520. lorn ex-criminals are now received in the ordinary labour Corps and Outposts. Officers and Cadets. The British Isles 1447 3,i9i ' The United States .... 871 2,983 South America and West Indies 128 1 88 Canada and Newfoundland 465 950 Australasia and Java .... 1283 1,721 India, Ceylon, Japan and Korea . 2584 1,626 South Africa and St Helena . "3 278 France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy . 374 499 Germany and Holland 248 772 Sweden, Norway, Finland Denmark and Iceland . . . 1067 1,513 Gibraltar and Malta . 2 5 Total . 8582 13.726 Employees (without rank), 6269. 1 Officers and employees (British Isles), 7538. Booth's scheme for Social Relief, described in In Darkest England, and the Way Out (1890), attracted wide-spread interest, There are a number of subsidiary branches of work, such as the Young People's Legion, and the Naval and Military League for work among men in the military, naval and merchant services. In England there is a bank (the Reliance Bank, Ltd.) and a Life Assurance Society, the funds of the latter amounting to £566,309 in 1909. All officers and many of the rank and file wear a uniform. Music is universally employed. While the organiza- tion has succeeded in securing recognition and favour in high places both in England and abroad, it has been seriously criticized at times, notably by Huxley and others in 1890-1891, and more recently by J. Manson in The Salvation Army and the Public, a work which led to much public discussion of the Army's religious, social and financial operations and methods. In 1910 some resignations took place among the higher officials. AUTHORITIES. — William Booth, Orders and Regulations for Soldiers ; Orders and Regulations for Field Officers; Orders and Regulations for Staff Officers; Salvation Soldiery; Interview with W. E. Gladstone; In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890); Bramwell Booth, Social Reparation; Servants of All (1899); Booth-Tucker, The Life of Catherine Booth (1892); Railton, Heathen England; Twenty-one Years' Salvation Army; Arnold White, Truth about the Salvation Army (1892, 1900 and 1906); The Great Idea (1909; 2nd ed., 1910); T. F. G. Coates, The Life Story of General Booth (2nd ed., 1906); Harold Begbie, Broken Earthenware (1909); various reports and accounts; The War Cry, The Social Gazette, The Salvation Army Year Book, &c. Criticism; Thomas H. Huxley, "Social Diseases and Worse Remedies" in Collected Essays, vol. ix. (1895); John 102 SALVER— SALVIAN Manson, The Salvation Army and the Public (1906; 3rd ed., 1908); Salvation Army Headquarters, A Calumny Refuted: A Reply to the Unfounded Charges of Sweating, &c. (1908) ; United Workers' Anti- Sweating Committee, Salvation Army Sweating: A Reply to the Mis-statements of General Booth and his Officials (1908; 2nd ed., 1910); Reports of the Trades Union Congress (1907 to 1910). SALVER, a flat tray of silver or other metal used for carrying or serving glasses, cups, dishes, &c., at table or for the presenting of a letter or card by a servant. In a royal or noble household the fear of poisoning led to the custom of tasting the food or drink before it was served to the master and his guests; this was known as the " assay " of meat and drink, and in Spanish was called salva (salvor, to preserve from risk, Lat. salvare, to save). The term salva was also applied to the dish or tray on which the food or drink was presented after the tasting process. There seems no doubt that this Spanish word is the source of the English " salver "; a parallel is found in the origin of the term " credence-table," which is from the Ital. credenza, Lat. credere, to believe, trust (see CREDENCE AND CREDENCE-TABLE). SALVIA, a large genus belonging to the natural order Labiatae (q.v.), containing about 500 species in the temperate and warmer regions of both hemispheres. The name is derived from the Lat. salvo, from the healing properties of sage, 5. officinalis (see figure under LABIATAE). S. verbenaea, Clary, is a native of Britain found in dry pastures and waste places. Some of the Salvias are among the most showy of the soft-wooded winter-flowering plants, the blossoms being of a bright glowing scarlet. The three most useful species are 5. splendens, S. Heerii and 5. gesneriflora, the first beginning to flower early in the autumn and lasting till Christmas, while the others follow immediately in succession, and continue in full beauty till April. Young plants should be propagated annually about February, and after nursing through the spring should be grown outdoors in a fully exposed situation, where they can be plunged in some non-conducting material, such as half-decomposed leaves. The young shoots should be stopped to secure bushy plants, but not later than the middle of August. The most suitable compost for them is a mixture From Struburger's Ltkrbuek da Balanik. by permission of Gustav Fischer. Pollination of Salvia Pratensis. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective en- closed within the upper lip. 3, The same when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow. /, Filament. c. Connective. [anther. s, The obstructing half of the 1, Flower visited by a bumble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective from the helmet-shaped upper lip and the deposition of the pollen on the back of the bumble-bee. 2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style. of mellow fibry loam enriched with a little mild thoroughly decom- |)osed manure, made sufficiently porous by the addition of sand or Krit. In spring, and during the blooming period, the temperature should be intermediate between that of a stove and greenhouse. There are other very ornamental species of easy growth, increased by cuttings in spring, and succeeding well in ordinary rich loamy soil. Of these S. anguslifolia bears spikes of fine bright-blue flowers in May or June; S. chamaedryoides, a dwarfish subject, has deep- blue flowers in August ; 5. fulgens produces scarlet flowers . in August; and 5. involucrata produces fine red flowers during the autumn. 5. patens is a lovely blue free-blooming sort, flowering in August, the colour being unique. SALVIAN, a Christian writer of the sth century, was born probably at Cologne (De gub. Dei, vi. 8, 13), some time between 400 and 405. He was educated at the school of Treves and seems to have been brought up as a Christian. His writings appear to show that he had made a special study of the law; and this is the more likely as he appears to have been of noble birth and could describe one of his relations as being " of no small account in her own district and not obscure in family " (Ep. i.). He was certainly a Christian when he married Palladia, the daughter of heathen parents, Hypatius and Quieta, whose dis- pleasure he incurred by persuading his wife to retire with him to a distant monastery, which is almost certainly that founded by St Honoratus at Lerins. For seven years there was no communi- cation between the two branches of the family, till at last, when Hypatius had become a Christian, Salvian wrote him a most touching letter in his own name, his wife's, and that of his little daughter Auspiciola, begging for the renewal of the old affection (Ep. iv.). This whole letter is a most curious illustration of Salvian's reproach against his age that the noblest man at once forfeited all esteem if he became a monk (De gub. iv. 7; cf. viii. 4). It was presumably at Lerins that Salvian made the acquaint- ance of Honoratus (ob. 429), Hilary of Aries (ob. 449), and Eucherius of Lyons (ob. 449). That he was a friend of the former and wrote an account of his life we learn from Hilary ( Vita Hon., ap. Migne, 1. 1260). To Eucherius's two sons, Salonius and Veranus, he acted as tutor in consort with Vincent of Lerins. As he succeeded Honoratus and Hilary in this office, this date cannot well be later than the year 426 or 427, when the former was called to Aries, whither he seems to have summoned Hilary before his death in 429 (Eucherii Instructio ad Salonium, ap. Migne, 1. 773; Salv., Ep. ii.). Salvian continued his friendly intercourse with both father and sons long after the latter had left his care; it was to Salonius (then a bishop) that he wrote his explanatory letter just after the publication of his treatise Ad ecclesiam; and to the same prelate a few years later he dedicated his great work, the De gubernatione Dei. If French scholars are right in assigning Hilary's Vita Honorati to 430, Salvian, who is there called a priest, had probably already left Lyons for Mar- seilles, where he is known to have spent the last years of his life (Gennadius, ap. Migne, Iviii. 1099). It was probably from Marseilles that he wrote his first letter — presumably to Lerins — begging the community there to receive his kinsman, the son of a widow of Cologne, who had been reduced to poverty by the barbarian invasions. It seems a fair inference that Salvian had divested himself of all his property in favour of that society and sent his relative to Lerins for assistance (Ep. i., with which compare Ad eccles. ii. 9, 10; iii. 5). It has been conjectured that Salvian paid a visit to Carthage; but this is a mere infer- ence based on the minute details he gives of the state of this city just before its fall (De gub. vii. viii.). He seems to have been still living at Marseilles when Gennadius wrote under the papacy of Gelasius (492-496). Of Salvian's writings there are still extant two treatises, entitled respectively De gubernatione Dei (more correctly De praesenti juaicio) and Ad ecclesiam, and a series of nine letters. The De gubernatione, Salvian's greatest work, was published after the capture of Litorius at Toulouse (439), to which he plainly alludes in vii. 40, and after the Vandal conquest of Carthage in the same year (vi. 12), but before Attila's invasion (450), as Salvian speaks of the Huns, not as enemies of the empire, but as serving in the Roman armies (vii. 9). The words " proximum bcllum " seem to denote a year very soon after 439. In this work, which furnishes a valuable if prejudiced description of life in 5th-century Gaul, Salvian deals with the same problem that had moved the eloquence of Augustine and Orosius. Why were these miseries falling on the empire? Could it be, as the pagans said, because the age had forsaken its old S>ds? or, as the semi-pagan creed of some Christians taught, that od did not constantly overrule the world he had created (i. i)? With the former Salvian will not argue (iii. i). To the latter he replies by asserting that, " just as the navigating steersman never looses the helm, so does God never remove his care from the world." Hence the title of the treatise. In books i. and ii. Salvian sets himself to prove God's constant guidance, first by the facts of Scripture history, and secondly by the enumeration of special texts declaring this truth. Having thus " laid the foundations " of his work, he declares in book iii. that the misery of the Roman world is all due to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every class of society. It is not merely that the slaves are thieves and runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons — the rich are worse (iv. 3). It is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the Bagaudae and fly for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6). Every- where the taxes are heaped upon the needy, while the rich, who have the apportioning of the impost, escape comparatively free (v. 7). The great towns are wholly given up to the abominations of the SALVINI— SAL WEEN 103 circus and the theatre, where decency is wholly set at nought, and Minerva, Mars, Neptune and the old gods are still worshipped (vi. 1 1 ; cf. vi. 2 and viii. 2). Treves was almost destroyed by the barbarians ; yet the first petition of its few surviving nobles was that the emperor would re-establish the circus games as a remedy for the ruinecf city (vi. 15). And this was the prayer of Christians, whose baptismal oath pledged them to renounce " the devil and his works . . . the pomps ana shows (spectacula) " of this wicked world (vi. 6). Darker still were the iniquities of Carthage, surpassing even the unconcealed licentiousness of Gaul and Spain (iv. 5) ; and more fearful to Salvian than all else was it to hear men swear " by Christ " that they would commit a crime (iv. 15). It would be the atheist's strongest argu- ment if God left such a state of society unpunished (iv. 12) — especially among Christians, whose sin, since they alone had the Scriptures, was worse than that of barbarians, even if equally wicked, would be (v. 2). But, as a matter of fact, the latter had at least some shining virtues mingled with their vices, whereas the Romans were wholly corrupt (vii. 15, iv. 14). With this iniquity of the Romans Salvian contrasts the chastity of the Vandals, the piety of the Goths, and the ruder virtues of the Franks, the Saxons, and the other tribes to whom, though heretic Arians or unbelievers, God is giving in reward the inheritance of the empire (vii. 9, n, 21). It is curious that Salvian shows no such hatred of the heterodox barbarians as was rife in Gaul seventy years later. It is difficult to credit the universal wickedness adduced by Salvian, especially in face of the contemporary testimony of Symmachus, Ausonius and Sidonius. Salvian was a sth-century socialist of the most extreme type, and a zealous ascetic who pitilessly scourged everything that fell short of an exalted morality, and exaggerated, albeit unconsciously, the faults that he desired to eradicate. Ad ecclesiam is explained by its common title, Contra avaritiam. It strongly commends meritorious almsgiving to the church. It is quoted more than once in the De gubernatione. Salvian published it under the name of Timothy, and explained his motives for so doing in a letter to his old pupil, Bishop Salonius (Ep. ix.). This work is chiefly remarkable because in some places it seems to recommend parents not to bequeath anything to their children, on the plea that it is better for the children to suffer want in this world than that their parents should be damned in the next (iii. 4). Salvian is very clear on the duty of absolute self-denial in the case of sacred virgins, priests and monks (ii. 8-10). Several works mentioned by Gennadius, notably a poem " in morem Graecorum " on the six days of creation (hexaemeron), and certain homilies composed for bishops, are now lost (Genn. 67). The Ad ecclesiam was first printed in Sichard's Antidoton (Basel, 1528); the De gubernatione by Brassican (Basel, 1530). The two appeared in one volume at Paris in 1575. Pithoeus added variae lectiones and the first seven letters (Paris, 1580) ; Ritterhusius made various conjectural emendations (Altorf, 1611), and Baluze many more based on MS. authority (Paris, 1663-1669). Numerous other editions appeared from the i6th to the i8th century, all of which are now superseded by the excellent ones of C. Halm (Berlin, 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, 1883). The two oldest MSS. of the De gubernatione belong to the loth century (Cod. Paris, No. 13,385) and the I3th (Brussels, 10,628); of the Ad ecclesiam to the loth (Paris, 2172) and the nth (Paris, 2785); of Epistle IX. to the 9th (Paris, 2785) ; of Epistte VIII. to the 7th or 8th century (Paris, 95,559) and to the gth or ipth century (Paris, 12,237, 12,236). Of the first seven epistles there is only one MS. extant, of which one part is now at Bern (No. 219), the other at Paris (No. 3791). See Histoire litte- raire de France, vol. ii.; Zschimmer's Salvianus (Halle, 1875). Salvian's works are reprinted (after Baluze) in Migne's Cursus patrologiae, ser. lat. vol. liii. For bibliography, see T. G. Schoene- mann's Bibliotheca patrum (ii. 823), and the prefaces to the editions of C. Halm (Monum. Germ., 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, Corp. scr. eccl. Lat., 1883). Gennadius, Hilary and Euchenus may be consulted in Migne, vols. Iviii. and 1. See also S. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, pp. 115-120. (T. A. A.) SALVINI, TOMMASO (1820- ), Italian actor, was born at Milan on the ist of January 1829. His father and mother were both actors, and Tommaso first appeared when he was barely fourteen as Pasquino in Goldoni's Donne curiose. In 1847 he joined the company of Adelaide Ristori, who was then at the beginning 'of her brilliant career. It was with her as Elettra that he won his first success in tragedy, playing the title role in Alfiero's Oreste at the Teatro Valle in Rome. He fought in the cause of Italian independence in 1849; otherwise his life was an unbroken series of successes in his art. He acted frequently in England, and made five visits to America, his first in 1873 and his last in 1889. In 1886 he played there Othello to the lago of Edwin Booth. Apart from Othello, which he played for the first time at Vicenza in June 1856, his most famous impersona- tions included Conrad in Paolo Giacometti's La Morte civile, Egisto in Alfieri's Merope, Saul in Alfieri's Saul, Paolo in Silvio Pellico's Francesco, da Rimini, Oedipus in Nicolini's play of that name, Macbeth and King Lear. Salvini retired from the stage in 1890, but in January 1902 took part in the celebration in Rome of Ristori's eightieth birthday (see the Century Magazine for June 1902, vol. Ixiii.). Salvini published a volume entitled Ricordi, anedotti ed impressioni (Milan, 1895). Some idea of his career may be gathered from Leaves from the Autobiography of Tommaso Salvini (London, 1893). His son Allessandro (1861-1896), also an actor, had several notable successes in America, particularly as D'Artagnan in The Three Guardsmen. SALWEEN, a river of Burma. This river, called Nam Kong by the Shans, Thanlwin by the Burmese, Lu Kiang, or Nu Kiang, or Lu Tzu Kiang by the Chinese, is the longest river in Burma, and one of the wildest and most picturesque streams in the world. Its sources are still undetermined, but there seems little doubt that it rises in the Tanla mountains, S. of the Kuen Lun, somewhere in 32° or 33° N., and that perhaps it draws some of its water from the Kara Nor. It is thus a much longer river than the Irrawaddy. From the time it leaves Tibet it has a very narrow basin, and preserves the character of a gigantic ditch, or railway cutting, with for long stretches no other affluents than the mountain torrents from the hills, which rise from 3000 to 5000 or 6000 ft. .above the level of the river-bed. In the dry season the banks are alternate stretches of blinding white, fine sand, and a chaos of huge boulders, masses and slabs of rock, with here and there, usually where a tributary enters, long stretches of shingle. In the rains all these disappear, and the water laps against forest trees and the abrupt slope of the hills. The average difference between high and low water level of the Salween throughout the Shan States is between 50 and 60 ft., and in some places it is as much as 90. There are many rapids, caused by reefs of rock running across the bed, or by a sudden fall of from one to several feet, which produce very rough water below the swift glide; but the most dangerous places for navigation are where a point juts out into the stream, and the current, thrown back, causes a violent double back- water. Nevertheless, long stretches of the river, extending to scores of miles, are habitually navigated by native boats. The current is extremely variable, from £ m. an hour to ten knots. Launches ply regularly from Moulmein to the mouth of the Yonzalin, in Lower Burma. The worst part of the whole Salween, so far as is known, is the gorge between the mouth of the Yonzalin and Kyaukhnyat. It is quite certain that steam launches could ply over very long sections of the river above that, perhaps as far as the Kaw ferry, or even the Kunlong ferry. In British territory, however, there are very few settlements on the river itself, and frequently the ferry villages are built 1000 ft. above the river. The Chinese believe the Salween valley to be deadly to all strangers, but it is in Chinese territory — particularly in the Lu Kiang, or Mong Hko state — that there is the largest population on the river until Lower Burma is reached. A description of the Salween resolves itself into a list of the ferries at which it can be crossed, for no one marches up the river. The river is bridged by the Chinese on the main route from Teng Yiieh (Momien) and Bhamo to Tali-fu. There are two spans; these are not in a straight line, but parallel to one another at the distance of the breadth of the central pillar. Each span is formed by twelve or fourteen massive iron chains, with planks laid across them. There was a bridge some 20 m. lower down, but this was destroyed in 1894. In British territory there are no bridges, and the ferries are the same as those maintained before annexation. There are a great number of these ferries, but only a few are used, except by the local people. From Ta Hsang Le large trading boats ply regularly to Kyaukhnyat, whence the traders make their way by land over the hill to Papun, and so down the Yonzalin. The chief tributaries of the Salween in British territory are the Nam Yu and the Nam Oi or Nam Mwe on the right bank, and the Hsipa Haw on the left. These are short but fair-sized streams. Near the Kunlong ferry the Nam Nim, on the right bank, and the Nam Ting, on the left, are considerably longer, and the Nam Ting is navigable by native craft for considerable stretches up to Meng Ting and farther. To the S. the next tributary is the Nam Kyek, on the right bank, down the valley of which the railway will reach the Salween. Below this are two streams called Nam Ma, one entering on the right bank, the other on the left, at no great distance from one another, but of no great length. A little below is the Nam Nang, on the left bank, coming from the Wa country. The Nam Kao enters in a cascade of nearly 200 ft. in the cold weather from the right, and then there are no affluents till the Nam Hka comes in on the left. IO4 SALWEEN— SALZBURG This has a great volume of water, but is unnavigable because of its steep gradient and many gorges. After the Hwe Long, entering from the left at Ta Kaw, is passed, the Nam Pang comes in 22 m. lower down on the right bank. This is probably the largest tributary of the Salween; some distance above its mouth, at Keng Hkam, it is 400 yds. wide and quite unfordable. The next important tributary is the Nam Hsim, on the left bank, rising in the latitude of Keng Tung. It is a large but quite unnavigable stream. Except the Me Sili and Me Sala, From opposite sides, and the Nam Hang, which burrows its way through a range of hills from the E., and the Nam Pan, coming from the W., there is no considerable tributary till 19° 52' N., where the Nam Teng comes in on the right from the central Shan States. This is a considerable river, and navigable for long stretches in its upper course, but the last few miles before it enters the Salween are little better than a cataract. Below this the only large affluent is the Nam Pawn, which drains all Karenni and a considerable por- tion of the Shan States, but is quite unnavigable. Below this the tributaries are again only mountain streams till the Thaung-yin comes in from the S.E. Thirty m. lower down is Kyodan, the great timber depot. Here a cable, stretched across the river, catches all the timber, which is then made up into rafts and floated down to Kado, near Moulmein, where the revenue is collected. The Yonzalin enters the Salween from the right about 10 m. below Kyodan. Boats can ply from Kyodan S., and light draught steamers ascend as far as Shwegon, 63 m. from Moulmein. The Salween cuts the British Shan States nearly in half, and is a very formidable natural obstacle. It seems probable, however, that long stretches of it can be opened to trade. It is certainly no less navigable than the Middle Mekong or the Yangtsze-kiang above I-chang. (J. G. Sc.) SALWEEN, a district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. Area, 2666 sq.m. Pop. (1901) 37,837, consisting largely of aboriginal tribes, Karens (33,448) and Shans (2816). Nearly the whole district is a maze of mountains intersected by deep ravines, the only level land of any considerable extent being found in the valley of the Yonzalin, while the country is covered with dense forest, of which 1 28 sq. m. are reserved. The district is drained by three principal rivers, the Salween, Yonzalin and Bilin, fed by mountain torrents. The Yonzalin, which rises in the extreme N., is navigable with some difficulty in the dry season as far as Papun; the Bilin is not navigable within the limits of the district except by small boats and rafts. The district is in charge of a superintendent of police, with head- quarters at Papun. The total rainfall in 1905 was 114-48 in., recorded at Papun. Apart from cotton-weaving, there are no manufactures. A considerable trade is carried on with Siam by bridle paths across the mountains. SALYANY, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern- ment of Baku, 80 m. S.S.W. from Baku, on the river Kura, and on an island of the same name. In 1897 itspopulation was 10,168, chiefly Tatars. It is a fishing centre, where thousands of workers gather from all parts of Russia during the season. Salyany was annexed to Russia in the i8th century, but was retaken by the Persians, and only became Russian finally in 1813. SALVES (Gr. Sd\u«: also SALLYES, SALYI, SALLUVJT), in ancient geography, a people occupying the plain S. of the Druentia (Durance) between the Rhone and the Alps. According to Strabo (iv. p. 203) the older Greeks called them Ligyes, and their territory Ligystike. By some authorities they were con- sidered a mixed race of Galli and Ligurians (hence Celtoligyes) ; by others a purely Celtic people, who subjugated the Ligures in the Provincia. They are said to have been the first transalpine people subdued by the Romans (Florus iii. 2). In 154 B.C. the inhabitantsof Massilia, who had been connected with the Romans by ties of friendship since the second Punic war, appealed for aid against the Oxybii and Decietes (or Deciates) . These people, called by Livy (Epil. 47) " transalpine Ligurians," were perhaps two smaller tribes included under the general name of Salyes. They were defeated by Quintus Opimius. In 125-124 hostilities broke out between the Romans and the Salyes from the same cause. The successful operations of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus were continued by Gaius Sextius Calvinus (123-122), who definitely subdued the Salyes, destroyed their chief town, and founded near its ruins the colony of Aquae Sextiae (Aix). Part of their territory was handed over to the Massaliots. Their king, Tuto- motulus (or Teutomalius), took refuge with the Allobroges. From this time the Salyes practically disappear from history. Among other important Roman towns in their territory may be mentioned Tarusco or Tarasco (Tarascon), Arelate (Aries), Glanum (St Remy) and Ernaginum (St Gabriel). For ancient authorities see A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904). SALZA, HERMANN VON (c. 1170-1239), Master of the Teu- tonic Order, and councillor of the emperor Frederick II., was a scion of the family of Langensalza in Thuringia. He entered the Teutonic Order in early life, became very intimate with Frederick II., took part in the expedition to Damietta in 1221, and accom- panied the emperor on the crusade of 1228, which was joined by many princes owing to his influence. About 1210 he was ap- pointed master of the Teutonic Order, and was offered, in 1226, the province of Kulm by Conrad I., duke of Masovia, in return for help against the Prussians; this he accepted and obtained the investiture from Frederick. In 1 230 the conquest of Prussia was begun by the Order, although not under his immediate leadership. In 12 25 he reconciled Valdemar II., kingof Denmark, with Henry I., count of Schwerin, and thus won again the land on the right bank of the Elbe for the Empire, and the recognition of imperial superiority over Denmark. Trusted by Pope Gregory IX. and the emperor alike, he brought about the treaty of San Germano between them in 1230, was the only witness when they met in conference at Anagni in the same year, and it was he who, in 1235, induced Frederick's son, Henry, to submit to his father. He died on the igth of March 1239 at Barletta in Apulia, and was buried there in the chapel of his Order. Vide: A. Koch, Hermann von Salza, Meister des deutschen Ordens (Leipzig, 1885). SALZBRUMN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, at the foot of a well-wooded spur of the Riesengebirge, 30 m. S.W. of Breslau, by the railway to Halber- stadt. Pop. (1905) 10,412. It consists of Ober-, Neu- and Nieder-Salzbrunn, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church and manufactures of glass, bricks and porcelain. Its alkalo-saline springs, especially efficacious in pulmonary and urinary complaints, were known as early as 1316, but fell into disuse until rediscovered early in the igth century. The waters are used both for drinking and bathing, and of the two chief springs, the Oberbrunnen and the Kronenquelle, nearly two million bottles are annually exported. The number of summer visitors is about 7000 a year. See Valentiner, Der Kurort Obersalzbrunn (Berlin, 1877); Biefel, Der Kurort Salzbrunn (Salzbrunn, 1872); and Deutsch, Schlesiens Heilquellen und Kurorte (Breslau, 1873). SALZBURG, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Upper Austria and Styria, N. by Upper Austria and Bavaria, W. by Bavaria and Tirol and S. by Carinthia and Tirol. It has an area of 2762 sq. m. Except a small portion in the extreme N., near Bavaria, the country is mountainous and belongs to the N. and central zone of the Eastern Alps. It is divided into three regions; the region of the Hohe Tauern, extending S. of the Salzach, the region of the limestone Alps and the undulating foothill region. The Hohe Tauern contains many high lying valleys, traversed by the streams which flow into the Salzach, as well as numerous depressions and passes, here called popularly Tauern. The deepest depression of the whole range is the Velber Tauern valley (8334 ft.) between the Velber and the Tauern, and the principal pass is the Niederer (Mallnitzer) Tauern (7920 ft.). This pass which leads from the Gastein valley to Carinthia is the oldest bridle-path over the Hoher Tauern. Between the passes is the ridge of Sonnblick, where a meteorological observatory was established in 1886 at an altitude of 10,170 ft. The region of the limestone Alps is composed of several detached groups: a portion of the Kitzbiihler Alps, which contain the famous Thurn pass (4183 ft.); then the Salz- burg Alps, which contain the Loferer Steinberge and the peak Birnhorn (8637 ft.); the Reitalm or the Reiteralpe with the peak Stadelhorn (7495 ft.); and the broad mass of the Schonfeldspitze (8708 ft.), from which the great glacier-covered block of the Ewiger Schnee, or Ubergossene Alps projects into the Salzach valley. Farther N. are the Hagengebirge (7844 ft.); the beauti- ful summit of the Hoher Goll (8263 ft.); the Tennegebirge (7217 ft.); and the Untersberg, an outpost of the Berchtesgaden SALZBURG group. Between the Hagengebirge and the Tennengebirge, which are situated on each side of the Salzach valley, is one of the most magnificent narrow passes of the Alps. It is below Werfen, and near its exit, just at the narrowest part, is the Lueg Pass, which was fortified as early as 1316 and offered a firm resistance to the French in the years 1800, 1805 and 1809. A portion of the Ischler Alps, as well as of the Dachstein group, also belongs to Salzburg. The principal river of Salzburg is the Salzach. The Enns and the Mur also rise in this province. The four Krimmlcr falls, together 2085 ft. high, are the most important falls in the Eastern Alps. The two falls at Wildbad-Gastein (196 and 296 ft.); the fall, by which the Gasteiner Ache discharges itself into the Salzach, near Lend; the Tauern fall (660 ft.), formed by the Tauern Ache on the N. side of the Radstater Tauern; and the Gollinger fall (202 ft. ) also deserve notice. Among the Klammen, i.e. narrow passages leading from the Salzach valley to the valleys of smaller rivers, the most celebrated are the Kitzloch Klamm and the Liechtenstein Klamm. The Kitzloch Klamm is formed by the Rauris Thai and the Liechtenstein Klamm by the Gross-Arle Thai. A path through the last Klamm leads to the magnificent fall (174 ft.) of the Gross-Arle river, which discharges itself in a series of cascades into the Salzach. The most important, lake is the Zeller-see (2424 ft. above sea- level, 2 sq. m. in extent, 238 ft. deep), whose waters are carried off by the Salzach. The Waller-see or Lake of Seekirchen (1653 ft. above sea-level), the Fuschl-see (2095 ft-), the Hinter-see (2580 ft.), the Ober-Trumer-see and Nieder-Trumer-see are all situated in the Alpine foothill region. The Mond-see (1560 ft.) and Aber-see, or Lake St Wolfgang, are on the frontier between Salzburg and Upper Austria. The climate, although healthy, is very changeable, with great extremes of temperature and heavy rainfall, especially in the summer. The most settled season is the autumn. The annual mean temperature at Salzburg is 46°-4 F. The population of the duchy in 1900 was 193,247, which is equivalent to 69 inhabitants per square mile. It is the most sparsely populated province of Austria. Between 1880 and 1900 the population increased by 17-5%. The inhabitants are a handsome and powerfully built peasant race, very con- servative in religion, manners, customs and national costume. They are almost exclusively of German stock and are Roman Catholics. Elementary education is much more advanced here than in any other Alpine province. Although 13-71% of the soil is unproductive and 32-4% is covered with forests, Salzburg is one of the principal pastoral regions of Austria. Of its total area, 28-9% consists of Alpine pastures available during the summer months, 4-95% of lowland pasturages and 8-3% of meadows, while only 9-2% is arable. Cattle-breeding and dairy-farming are very developed and constitute the chief re- sources of the province. Next in importance comes the timber trade; game is also plentiful. The mineral wealth of Salzburg includes salt at Hallein, copper at Mitterberg, iron-ore at Werfen, marble in the Untersberg region and small quantities of gold near the Goldberg in the Rauris valley and at Bockstein in the Gastein valley. The duchy contains also a great number of mineral springs, as the celebrated springs at Gastein, alkaline springs at Mauterndorf and at St Wolfgang, and saline springs at Coiling and Hallein. Commerce and manufacture are poorly developed. The duchy is divided into six departments, of which the capital, Salzburg, is one and its environs the second. The other four are Hallein, St Johann, Tamsweg and Zell-am-See. The local diet, of which the archbishop is a member ex-officio, is composed of 28 members, and the duchy sends 7- members to the reichsrat at Vienna. At' Hallein, pop. (1900) 6608, with celebrated saline springs known since the beginning of the I2th century, in October 1809, encounters between the French and the Tirolese under Joachim Johann Haspinger took place. To the N.E. lies Adnet with extensive marble quarries, and to the N. Oberalm, with manufacture of marble articles. The ascent of the Hoher Goll is made from here. Zell-am-See (2473 ft.), pop. 1561, is a favourite tourist resort. To the E. is the Schmit- tenhohe (6455 ft-X which is easily accessible. On the summit is a meteorological station. Sankt Johann (pop. 1343) was one of the earliest settlements in the Salzach valley, and was a principal centre of Protestantism. Near it is the Liechtenstein Klamm. For the history of the archbishopric and duchy see the article on the town of Salzburg (below). SALZBURG, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Salzburg and formerly of the archbishopric of the same name, 195 m. W. by S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 32, 934. The city occupies a position of singular beauty on the Salzach which passes at this point between two isolated hills, the Monchsberg (1646 ft.) on the left and the Capuzinerberg (2132 ft.) on the right. In the lovely valley so formed, and stretching into the plain beyond, lies Salzburg. The older and main part of the city lies on the left bank of the Salzach, in a narrow semicircular plain at the base of the Monchsberg; the newer town is on the right bank at the foot of the Capuzinerberg, which is separated from the river by the narrow suburb of Stein. At the S. of the old town, below the Nonnberg, of S.E. spur of the Monchsberg, is the suburb of Nonnthal; and at the N. end is Miilln. The steep sides of the Monchsberg rise directly from amidst the houses of the town, some of which have cellars and rooms hewn out of the rock; and the ancient cemetery of St Peter, the oldest in Salzburg, is bounded by a row of vaults cut in the side of the hill. The narrowest part of the ridge, which has a length of above 2 m. is pierced by the .Neu Thor, a tunnel 436 ft. long and 23 ft. broad, completed in 1767, to form a convenient passage from the town to the open plain. The S. end of the Monchsberg is occupied by the imposing Hohen-Salzburg, a citadel originally founded in the 9th century, though the present buildings, the towers of which rise 400 ft. above the town, date chiefly from 1496-1519. Its chapel contains statues of the twelve apostles in red marble. The citadel is now used for barracks. The streets in the older quarters are narrow, crooked and gloomy; but the newer parts of the city, especially those laid out since the removal of the fortifica- tions about 1 86 1, are handsome and spacious. Owing to the frequent fires the private buildings of Salzburg are comparatively modern; and the existing houses, lavishly adorned with marble, are, like many of the public buildings, monuments of the gorgeous taste of the archbishops of the I7th and i8th centuries. From the style of the houses, the numerous open squares, and the abundant fountains which give an Italian aspect to the town, Salzburg has received the name of " the German Rome." Both sides of the river are bordered by fine promenades, planted with trees. The Salzach is spanned by four bridges, including a railway bridge. Salzburg is full of objects and buildings of interest. The cathedral, one of the largest and most perfect specimens of the Renaissance style in Germany, was built in 1614-1668 by the Italian architect Santino Solari, in imitation of St Peter's at Rome. On three sides it is bounded by the Dom-Platz, the Kapitel-Platz and the Residenz- Platz; and opening on the N.E. and N.W. of the last are the Mozart- Platz and the Markt-Platz. In the Mozart-Platz is a statue of Mozart by Schwanthaler erected in 1842. On one side of the Residenz-Platz is the palace, an irregular though imposing building m the Italian style, begun in 1592 and finished in 1725. It contains a picture-gallery and is now occupied by the grand-duke of Tuscany. Opposite is the Neu Bau, begun in 1588, in which are the govern- ment offices and the law courts. In the middle of the Residenz- Platz is a handsome fountain, the Residenz-Brunnen, 46 ft. high, executed in marble by Antonio Dario in 1664-1680. The palace of the present archbishop is in the Kapitel-Platz. Across the river, with its French garden adjoining the public park, is the Mirabell palace, formerly the summer residence of the archbishops. Built in 1607, and restored after a fire in 1818, it was presented to the town in 1867 by the emperor Francis Joseph. The town hall of Salzburg was built in 1407 and restored in 1675. Other interesting secular buildings are the Chiemseehof, founded in 1305 and rebuilt in 1697, formerly the palace of the suffragan bishop of Chiemsee, and now the meeting-place of the Salzburg diet and the Carolino-Augusteum- Museum, containing an interesting collection of antiquities and a library of 20,000 volumes. Of the twenty-five churches the majority are interesting from their antiquity, their architecture or their associations. Next to the cathedral, the chief is perhaps the abbey church of St Peter, a Romanesque basilica of the 12th century which was tastelessly restored in 1745, and which contains a monument to St Rupert. St Margaret's, in the midst of St Peter's churchyard, built in 1485, and restored in 1865, is situated near the cave in the side of the Monchsberg, said to have been the hermitage of St Maximus, who io6 SALZKAMMERGUT— SAMAIN was martyred by the pagan Heruli in 477. The Franciscan church, with an elegant tower built in 1866, is an interesting example of the transition style of the I3th century, with later baroque additions. St Sebastian s, on the right bank, built in 1505-1512 and restored in 1812, contains the tomb of Paracelsus, who died here. The oldest and most important of the eight convents at Salzburg is the Bene- dictine abbey of St Peter founded by St Rupert as the nucleus of the city. It was completely rebuilt in 1131 and contains a library of 40,000 volumes, besides MSS. The Capuchin monastery, dating from '599. gives name to the Capuzinerberg. The oldest nunnery is that founded on the Nonnberg by St Rupert, the Gothic church of which dates from 1423 and contains some fine stained glass and some old frescoes. The single Protestant church in Salzburg was not built until 1865. A theological seminary is the only relic now left of the university of Salzburg, founded in 1623 and suppressed in 1810. The city is the see of an archbishop with a cathedral chapter and a consistory. Salzburg, situated at an altitude of 1351 ft. above sea- level, has a healthy climate and is visited annually by over 60,000 tourists. It has a mean annual temperature of 46-4° F. and a mean annual rainfall of 45-59 in. The town carries on a variety of small manufactures, including musical instruments, iron-wares, marble ornaments. Other industries are brewing and book-binding. It was the birthplace of Mozart and of the painter Hans Makart (1840- 1884). The house in which Mozart was born has been transformed into a museum, which contains many interesting relics. Numerous places of interest and beautiful spots are to be found round Salzburg. To the E. rises the Gaisberg (4206 ft.), which is ascended by a rack-and-pinipn railway, which starts from Parsch. At the foot of the Gaisberg is Aigen, a renowned castle and park. Three miles S. of Salzburg is the palace of Hellbrunn, built about 1615, which contains a famous mechanical theatre and some fine fountains. About 2 m. to the S.W. of Salzburg is the castle of Leopoldskron, and from this point the Leopoldskroner Moos stretches S. to the base of the Untersberg. A few peat-baths, as the Ludwigsbad and the Marienbad, are in the neighbourhood of Leopoldskron. Three and a half miles N. of Salzburg, at an altitude of 1720 ft., stands the pilgrimage church of Maria Plain, erected in 1674. The origin and development of Salzburg were alike ecclesiastical, and its history is involved with that of the archbishopric to which it gave its name. The old Roman town of Juvavum was laid in ruins, and the incipient Christianity of the district overwhelmed, by the pagan Goths and Huns. The nucleus of the present city was the monastery and bishopric founded here about 700 by St Rupert of Worms, who had been invited by Duke Theodo of Bavaria to preach Christianity in his land. The modern name of the town, due like several others in the district to the abundance of salt found there, appears before the end of the 8th century. After Charlemagne had taken possession of Bavaria in the 8th century, Bishop Arno of Salzburg was made an archbishop and papal legate. Thenceforward the dignity and power of the see steadily increased and in the course of time the archbishops obtained high secular honours. In 1278 Rudolph of Habsburg made them imperial princes. The strife between lord and people was always keen in Salzburg. Archbishop Leonhard II., who expelled the Jews from Salzburg in 1498, had to face a conspiracy of the nobles and was besieged in Hohen-Salzburg by the inhabitants in 1511. The Peasants' War also raged within the see in 1525 and 1526, and was only quelled with the aid of the Swabian League. From the beginning an orthodox stronghold of the Roman Catholic faith, Salzburg energetically opposed the Reformation. Under Archbishop Wolfgang Dietrich (d. 1611) many Protestant citizens were driven from the town and their houses demolished. In spite, however, of rigorous persecutjon the new faith spread, and a new and more searching edict of expulsion was issued by Archbishop Leopold Anton von Firmian (d. 1744). The Protestants invoked the aid of Frederick William I. of Prussia, who procured for them permission to sell their goods and to emigrate ; and m 1731 and 1732 Salzburg parted with about 30,000 industrious and peaceful citizens, about 6000 of these coming from the capital. The last independent archbishop was Hierpnymus von Colloredo (1732-1812), who ruled with energy and justice but without gaining popularity. By the peace of LuneVille (1802) the see was secularized and given to the archduke of Austria and grand-duke of Tuscany in exchange for Tuscany, its new owner being enrolled among the electoral princes. In the redistribution following the peace of Pressburg in 1805, Salzburg fell to Austria. Four years later it passed to Bavaria, but after the peace of Paris it was restored to Austria in 1816, except a portion on the left bank of the Salzach. Under the designation of a duchy the territory formed the department of Salzach in Uppe' Austria until 1849, when it was made a separate crownland, and finally in 1861 the management of its affairs was entrusted to a local diet. The actual duchy does not correspond exactly with the old bishopric. Salzburg embraced at the time of the peace of Westphalia (1648) an area of 3821 sq. m. with a population of 190,000. A part of its territory was ceded to Bavaria in 1814, and when Salzburg became a separate crownland in 1849 several of its districts were added to Tirol. For the history of the archbishopric see Meiller, Regesta archi- episcoporum Salisburgensium, 1106-1246 (Vienna, 1866); Dfimmler, Beilrage zw Geschichte des Erzbistums von Salzburg im (>-l2 Jahr- hundert (Vienna, 1859); the Salzburger Vrkundenbuch, edited by W. Hauthaler (Salzburg, 1800); Pichler, Salzburgs Landesgeschichte (Salzburg, 1865); Doblhoff, Beilrage zum Quellenstudium Salzbur- gischer Landeskunde (Salzburg, 1893-1895); Greinz, Die Erzdiozese Salzburg (Vienna, 1898); Rieder, Kurze Geschichte des Landes Salzburg (Vienna, 1905) ; E. Richter, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1881) ; Thym, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1901), and F. von Pichl, Kritische Abhandlungen liber die dlteste Geschichte Salzburgs (Innsbruck, 1889). For the town see Widmann, Geschichte Salzburgs (Gotha, 1907); F. von Zillner, Geschichte der Stadt Salzburg (Salzburg, 1885-1890); Trautwein, Salzburg (i2th ed., Innsbruck, 1901); J. Meurer, Fuhrer durch Salzburg (Vienna, 1889), and Purtscheller, Fuhrer durch Salzburg und Umgebung (Salzburg, 1905). See also C. F. Arnold, Die Ausrottung des Protestantismus in Salzburg unter Erzbischof Firmian (1900). SALZKAMMERGUT, a district of Austria in the S.W. angle of the duchy of Upper Austria situated between Salzburg and Styria. It forms a separate imperial domain of about 250 sq. m. and is famous for its fine scenery, which has gained for it the title of the " Austrian Switzerland "; but it owes its name (literally " salt-exchequer property ") and its economic import- ance to its valuable salt mines. It belongs to the region of the Eastern Alps, and contains the Dachstein group with the Dach- stein (9830 ft.) and the Thorstein (9657 ft.). In the Dachstein group are found the most easterly glaciers of the Alps, of which the largest is the Karls-Eisfeld, nearly 2$ m. long and ij m. broad; the Ischler Alps with the Gamsfeld (6640 ft.), the Hollengebirge with the great Hollenkogel (6106 ft.), and the Schafberg (5837 ft.), which is called the " Austrian Rigi." Then comes the Todtes Gebirge, with the Grosser Priel (8246 ft.) and the Traunstein (5446 ft.) on the E. shore of the Traun lake; the Pyhrgas group with the Grosser Pyhrgas (7360 ft.) and the Sengsen or Sensen group, with the Hoher Nock (6431 ft.). The chief lakes are the Traun-see or Lake of Gmunden (1383 ft. above sea -level, 9 sq. m. in extent, 623 ft. deep); the Hallstatter-see or Lake of Hallstatt (1629 ft. above sea-level, 35 sq. m. in extent, 409 ft. deep ); the Atter-see or Kammer-see (1527 ft. above sea- level, 18 sq. m. in extent, 560 ft. deep), the largest lake in Austria; the Mond-see (1560 ft. above the sea, 9 sq. m. in extent, 222 ft. deep) and the Aber-see or Lake of St Wolfgang (1742 ft. above sea-level, si sq. m. in extent, 369 ft. deep). Salzkammergut had in 1900 a population of over 18,000. The capital of the district is Gmunden, and other places of importance are Ischl, Hallstatt and Ebensee (7656), which are important salt-mining centres. The salt extracted in Salzkammergut amounts to nearly 30 % of the total Austrian production. Cattle- rearing and forestry form the other principal occupations of the inhabitants. See Kegele, Das Salzkammergut (Wien, 1897). SALZWEDEL, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, in a plain on the navigable Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe, 32 m. N.W. of Stendal and 106 m. by rail N.W. of Berlin, on the line to Bremen. Pop. (1905) 11,122. Salzwedel is partly surrounded by medieval walls and gates. The church of St Mary is a fine Gothic structure of the I3th century with five naves and a lofty spire. The old town hall, burnt down in 1895, has been replaced by a modern edifice. The industries include linen and damask weaving, tanning, brewing and the manufacture of pins, chemicals and machinery, and a brisk river trade is carried on in agri- cultural produce. Salzwedel, formerly Soltwedel, was founded by the Saxons, and was from 1070 to 1170 the capital of the old or north Mark, also for a time called the " mark of Soltwedel," the kernel of Brandenburg-Prussia. The old castle, perhaps iounded by Charlemagne, was purchased in 1864 by the king of Prussia. Salzwedel was also a member of the Hanseatic League, and at the beginning of the i6th century seems to have transacted a great part of the inland commerce of North Germany. See Pohlmann, Geschichte der Stadt Salzwedel (Halle, 1811), and Danneil, Geschichte der koniglichen Burg zu Salzwedel (Salzwedel, 1865). SAMAIN, ALBERT VICTOR (1858-1900), French poet, was born at Lille on the 4th of April 1858. He was educated at the Iyc6e of that town, and on leaving it entered a bank as a clerk. He enjoyed no literary associations, and his talent developed slowly in solitude. About 1884 Samain went to Paris, having SAMANA RANGE— SAMARA 107 obtained a clerkship in the Prefecture de la Seine, which he held for most of his life. He presently began to send poems to the Mercure de France, and these attracted attention. In 1893 he allowed a friend to print his earliest volume of poems, Au Jardin de I'injanle, in a very small edition. This led to the sudden recog- nition of his talent, and to applause from critics of widely different schools. In 1897 this book was reprinted in a more popular form, with the addition of a section entitled L'Urne penchee. Samain's second volume, Auxflancs du vase, appeared in 1898. His health began to fail and he withdrew to the country, where he died, in the neighbourhood of the village of Magny-les- Hameaux, on the i8th of August 1900. A third volume of his poems, Le Chariot d'or, appeared after his death, with a lyrical drama, Polypheme (1901), which was produced at the Theatre de 1'CEuvre in 1904. The fame of Samain rapidly advanced when he was dead, and the general public awakened to the fact that this isolated writer was a poet of rare originality. He cultivated . a delicate, languid beauty of imagery and an exquisite sense of verbal melody without attempting any revolution in prosody or identifying himself with any theory. Samain had no great range of talent, nor was he ambitious of many effects. Samain's natural life was patiently spent in squalid conditions; he escaped from them into an imaginative world of the most ex- quisite refinement. He has been compared to Watteau and Schumann; in his own art he bore some resemblance to Charles Baudelaire, and to the English poet Arthur O'Shaughnessy. See also R. Doumic, " Trois Fortes," in the Revue des deux mond.es (Oct. 1900) ; L. Bocquet, Albert Samain, sa vie, son teuvre (1905) ; and E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905). (E. G.) SAMANA RANGE, a mountain ridge in Kohat district of the N.W. Frontier Province of India, commanding the S. boundary of Tirah. The ridge lies between the Khanki Valley on the N. and the Miranzai Valley on the S., and extends for some 30 m. W. from Hangu to the Samana Suk. It is some 6000 to 7000 ft. high. Beyond the Samana Suk lies the pass, known as the Chagru Kotal, across which the Tirah Expedition marched in 1897. On the opposite hill on the other side of this road is the famous position of Dargai (see TIRAH CAMPAIGN). After the Miranzai Expedition of 1891 this range was occupied by British troops and eleven posts were established along its crest, the two chief posts being Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan. In 1897 all the forts on the Samana were attacked by the Orakzais, and this and the Afridi attack on the Khyber Pass were the two chief causes of the Tirah Expedition. When Lord Curzon reorganized the frontier in 1900, British garrisons were withdrawn from the Samana forts, which are now held by a corps of tribal police 450 strong, called the Samana Rifles. SAMANIDS, the first great native dynasty which sprang up in the gth century in E. Persia, and, though nominally provincial governors under the suzerainty of the caliphs of Bagdad, suc- ceeded in a very short time in establishing an almost independent rule over Transoxiana and the greater part of Persia. Under the caliphate of Mamun, Saman, a Persian noble of Balkh, who was a close friend of the Arab governor of Khorasan, Asad b. Abdallah, was converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam. His son Asad, named after Asad b. Abdallah, had four sons who rendered distinguished services to Mamun. In return they all received provinces: Nuh. obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Ferghana; Yahya, Shash; Ilyas, Herat. Of these Ahmad and his second son Isma'il overthrew the Saffarids (q.v.~) and the Zaidites of Tabaristan, and thus the Samanids established themselves with the sanction of the caliph Motamid in their capital Bokhara. The first ruler (874) was Nasr I. (Nasr or Nasir b. Ahmad b. Asad. b. Saman). He was succeeded by his brother Isma'il b. Ahmad (892). His descendants and successors, all renowned for the high impulse they gave both to the patriotic feelings and the national poetry of modern Persia (see PERSIA: Literature), were Ahmad b. Israa'il (907-913); Nasr II. b. Ahmad, the patron and friend of the great poet Rudagi (913-942); Nuh I. b. Nasr (942-954); Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh (954-961); Mansur I. b. Nuh, whose vizier Bal'ami translated Tabarl s universal history into Persian (961- 976); Nulj II- b. Mansur, whose court-poet Daqiqi (Dakiki) began the Shahndma (976-997); Mansur II. b. Nuh (997-999); and Abdalmalik II. b. Nuh (999), under whom the Samanid dynasty was conquered by the Ghaznevids. The rulers of this powerful house, whose silver dirhems had an extensive currency during the loth century all over the N. of Asia, and were brought, through Russian caravans, even so far as to Pomerania, Sweden and Norway, where Samanid coins have been found in great number, were in their turn overthrown by a more youthful and vigorous race, that of Sabuktagin, which founded the illustrious Ghaznevid dynasty and the Mussulman empire of India Under Abdalmalik I. a Turkish slave, Alptagin, had been entrusted with the government of Bok- hara, but, showing himself hostile to Mansur I., he was compelled to fly and to take refuge in the mountainous regions of Ghazni, where he soon established a semi-independent rule, to which after his death in 977 (367 A.H.), his son-in-law Sabuktagin. likewise a former Turkish slave, succeeded. Nuh II., in order to retain at least a nominal sway over those Afghan territories, confirmed him in his high position and even invested Sabuktagin's son Mahmud with the governorship of Khorasan, in reward for the powerful help they had given him in his desperate struggles with a confederation of dis- affected nobles of Bokhara under the leadership of Fa'iq and the troops of the Dailamites, a dynasty that had arisen on the shores of the Caspian Sea and wrested already from the hands of the Samanids all their western provinces. Unfortunately, Sabuktagin died in the same year as Nub II. (997, 3»7 A.H.), and Mahmud (q.v.). confronted with an internal contest against his own brother Isma'il, had to withdraw his attention for a short time from the affairs in Khorasan and Transoxiana. This interval sufficed for the old rebel leader Fa'iq, supported by a strong Tatar army under the Ilek Khan Abu'l Hosain Na?r I., to turn Nub's successor Mansur II. into a mere puppet, to concentrate all the power in his own hand, and to induce even his nominal master to reject Mabmud's application for a continuance of his governorship in Khorasan. Mafmud refrained for the moment from vindicating his right ; but, as soon as, through court intrigues, Mansur II. had been dethroned, he took possession of Khorasan, deposed Mansur's successor Abdalmalik II., and assumed as an independent monarch for the first time in Asiatic history the title of " sultan." The last prince of the house of Saman. Montasir, a bold warrior and a poet of no mean talent, carried ori for some years a kind of guerilla warfare against both Mahmud and the Ilek Khan, who had occupied Transoxiana, till he was assassinated in 1005 (395 A.H.). Transoxiana itself was annexed to the Ghaznevid realm eleven years later, 1016 (407 A.H.). See S. Lane Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties (1894), pp. 131-133; Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888), vol. i. p. 113; also articles CALIPHATE and PERSIA : History, section B, and for the later period MAHMUD, SELJUKS, MONGOLS. SAMANIEGO, FELIX MARIA DE (1745-1801), Spanish fabub'st, was born at Laguardia (Alava) on the I2th of October 1745, and was educated at Valladolid. A government appoint- ment was secured for him by his uncle the count de Penaflorida. His Fdbulas (i 781-1784), one hundred and fifty-seven in number, were originally written for the boys educated in the school founded by the Biscayan Society. In the first instalment of his fables he admits that he had taken Iriarte for his model, a statement which proves that he had read Iriarte's fables in manuscript; he appears, however, to have resented their publication in 1782, and this led to a rancorous controversy between the former friends. Samaniego holds his own in the matters of quiet humour and careless grace, and his popularity continues. He died at Laguardia on the nth of August 1801. SAMARA, a government of S.E. Russia, on the W. side of the lower Volga, bounded on the N. by the governments of Kazan and Ufa, on the W. by Simbirsk and Saratov, on the E. by Ufa and Orenburg, and on the S. by Astrakhan, the Kirghiz Steppes and the territory of the Ural Cossacks. The area is 58,302 sq. m., and the population, in 1897, 2,763,478. A line drawn E. from the great bend of the Volga — the Samarskaya Luka — would divide the government into two parts, differing in orographical character. In the N. are flat hills and plateaus intersected by deep rivers. In their highest parts these elevations rise about 1000 ft. above the sea, while the level of the Volga at Samara is only 43 ft. S. of the Samarskaya Luka the country assumes the character of a low, flat steppe, recently emerged from the post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian basin. The government is built up chiefly of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, clay slates and limestones, representing mostly deep-sea deposits. The Permian formation appears along the rivers Sok and Samara, and is represented by limestones, sands and marls contain- ing gypsum, all of marine origin, and by continental deposits dating from the same period; sandstones impregnated with petroleum also occur. In the N. these deposits are covered with io8 SAMARA— SAMARIA " variegated marls " and with a variety of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits. The Tertiary formation (Eocene) appears only at Novo-uzensk; the remainder of a vast sheet of this formation, which at one time covered all the region between the Volga and the Urals, was removed during the Glacial period. Post-Tertiary Caspian deposits penetrate far into the government along the main valleys, and a thick layer of loess occurs in the N. Selenites, rock-crystal and agates are found, as also copper ores, rock-salt and sandstone extracted for building purposes. The soil is on the whole very fertile. All the N. of the government is covered with a thick sheet of black earth; this becomes thinner towards the S., clays — mostly fertile — cropping out from under- neath it; salt clays appear in the S.E. Samara is inadequately drained, especially in the S. The Volga flows for 550 m. along its W. border. Its tributaries, the Great Cheremshan (220 m.), the Sok (195 m.), the Samara (340 m.), with its tributaries, are not navigable, partly on account of their shallowness and partly because of water-mills. When the water is high, boats can penetrate up some of them 15 to 30 m. The Great Irgiz alone, which has an exceedingly winding course of 335 m., is navigated to Kushum, and rafts are floated from Nikolayevsk. The banks of both Karamans are densely peopled. The Great and Little Uzefi drain S.E. Samara and lose themselves in the Kamysh sands before reaching the Caspian. Salt marshes occur in the S.E. The whole of the region is rapidly drying up. The forests, which are disappearing, are extensive only in the N. Altogether they cover 8% of the surface; prairie and grazing land occupies 32%, and 12% is uncultivable. The climate is one of extremes, especially in the steppes, where the depressing heat and drought of summer are followed in winter by severe frosts, often accompanied by snowstorms. The average temperature at Samara (53° n' N.) is only 39°- 2 (January, 9°-3; July, 70° -4). The population, which was 1,388,500 in 1853, numbered 2,763,478 in 1897, of whom 1,398,263 were women and 159,485 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,276,500. Great and Little Russians formed 69% of the inhabitants; Mordvinians 8-6%, Chuvashes and Votiaks 2-3%, .Germans 8-1% Tatars 3-6% and Bashkirs 2%. The Great Russians immigrated in compact masses. A special feature of Samara is its German colonists, from Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland and partly also from Holland and the Palatinate, whose immigra- tion dates from the time of Catherine II. in 1762. Favoured as they were by free and extensive grants of land, by exemption from military service and by self-government, they have developed into wealthy colonies of Roman Catholics, Protestants, Unitarians, Anabaptists, Moravians and Mennonites. As regards religion, the great bulk of the population are Orthodox Greeks; the Nonconformists, who are settled chiefly on both the rivers Uzefi, number officially 100,000, but their real numbers are higher; next come Mahommedans, 12%; various Protestant sects, 5%; Roman Catholics, about z%; and some 4000 pagans. The chief occupation is agriculture — wheat, rye, oats, millet, oil-yielding plants, potatoes and tobacco being the principal crops. Owing to its great fertility, Samara usually has a surplus of grain for export, varying from ij to 4 million quarters (ex- clusive of oats) annually. Notwithstanding this production, the government is periodically liable to famine to such an extent that men die by thousands of hunger-typhus, or are forced to go by thousands in search of employment on the Volga. The population have no store of corn, or reserve capital for years of scarcity, and some 210,000 males have each an average of only four acres of arable and pasture land. But even this soil, al- though all taxed as arable, is often of such quality that only 50% to 55% of it is under crops, while the peasants are compelled to rent from two to two and a half million acres for tillage from large proprietors. Over 8J million acres, or not far short of one-quarter of the total area of the government, purchased from the crown or from the Bashkirs — very often at a few pence per acre — are in the hands of no more than 1704 persons. The general impoverishment may be judged from the death-rate, 46 to 48 per thousand. Out of the total area, 4,143,800 acres belong to the crown, 7,979,000 to private persons and 22,486,700 acres to the peasants, who rent, moreover, about 6| million acres. Water melons and sunflowers are extensively cultivated, and gardening is widely engaged in; mustard and inferior qualities of tobacco are grown. Hemp-seed, linseed, and other oil-seeds and bran are exported, as well as cereals and flour. Livestock are extensively bred. Bee-keeping is another pursuit that is widely followed. The export of poultry, especially of geese, has increased greatly. The principal manufactures are flour- mills, tanneries, distilleries, candle and tallow works, breweries and sugar refineries. Petty domestic industries, especially the weaving of woollen cloth, are carried on in the S. Both the external and the internal trade are very flourishing, nearly 250 fairs being held in the government every year; the chief are those at Novo-uzensk andBugulma. Owing to the efforts of the local zemstvos there are more than the average number of primary schools, namely, one for every 1810 inhabitants. The govern- ment is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Samara, Bugulma, Buguruslan, Buzuluk, Nikolayevsk, Novo-Uzen and Stavropol. The Sergiyevsk sulphurous mineral springs, 57 m. from Buguruslan, are visited by numbers of patients. The territory now occupied by Samara was until the i8th century the abode of nomads. The Bulgarians who occupied it until the i3th century were followed by Mongols of the Golden Horde. The Russians penetrated thus far in the i6th century, after the conquest of the principalities of Kazan and Astrakhan. To secure communication between these two cities, the fort of Samara was erected in 1586, as well as Saratov, Tsaritsyn and the first line of Russian forts, which extended from Byelyi-yar on the Volga to the neighbourhood of Menzelinsk near the Kama. In 1670 Samara was taken by the insurgent leader Stenka Razin. In 1732 the line of forts was removed a little farther E., and the Russian colonists advanced E. as the forts were pushed forwards. In 1762, on the invitation of Catherine II., emigrants from various parts of Germany settled in this region, as also did the Raskolniks, whose communities on the Irgiz became the centre of a formidable insurrection in 1775 under Pugachev. At the end of the i8th century Samara became an important centre for trade. In the first half of the igth century the region was rapidly colonized by Great and Little Russians. In 1847-1850 the government introduced about 120 Polish families; in 1857- 1859 Mennonites from Danzig founded settlements; and in 1859 a few Circassians were brought hither by government; while the influx of Great Russian peasants still goes on. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SAMARA, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 305 m. by river S.S.E of Kazan and 261 m. by rail W.N.W of Orenburg. Its population, which was 63,479 in 1883, numbered 91,672 in 1897. Owing to its situation on the left bank of the Volga, at the convergence of the Siberian and Central Asian railways, it has great commercial importance, especially as a dep6t for cereals and a centre for flour-milling. A considerable trade is also carried on in animal products, par- ticularly hides. The other industries include iron-foundries, soap, candles, vehicles and glue factories, cooperages, tanneries, breweries and brick-works. The port is the best on the Volga. Three great fairs are held every year. The city, which gives title to a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, has three cathedrals, built in 1685, 1730-1735 and 1894 respectively, three public libraries, and a natural history and archaeological museum. It is famous for its kumis (mare's milk) cures. Its foundation took place in 1586-1591 for the purpose of protecting the Russian frontier against the Bashkirs, the Kalmucks and the Nogai Tatars. SAMARIA, an ancient city of Palestine. The name Samaria is derived through the Gr. Sa/uApeta from the Hebrew jhgtf, " an outlook hill," or rather from the Aramaic form jnpp, whence also comes the Assyrian form Samirina. According to •! Kings xvi. 24, Omri, king of Israel, bought Samaria from a SAMARITANS 109 certain Shemer (whose name is said to be the origin of that of the city), and transferred thither his capital from Tirzah. But the city, as a superficial inspection of the site shows, must have existed as a settlement long before Omri, as potsherds of eailier date lie scattered on the surface. The city was occupied by Ahab, who here built a temple to " Baal " (i Kings xvi. 32) and a palace of ivory (i Kings xxii. 39). It sustained frequent sieges during the troubled history of the Israelite kingdom. Ben-Hadad II. of Syria assaulted it in the reign of Ahab, but was repulsed and obliged to allow the Israelite traders to establish a quarter in Damascus, as his predecessor Ben-Hadad I. had done in Samaria (i Kings xx. 34). Ben-Hadad II. in the time of Jehoahaz again besieged Samaria, and caused a famine in the city; but some panic led them to raise the siege (2 Kings vi., vii.). The history of the city for the following 120 years is that of Israel (see JEWS). In 727 died Tiglath-Pileser, to whom the small kingdoms of W. Asia had been in vassalage; in the case of Israel at least since Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19). He was succeeded by Shal- maneser IV., and the king of Israel, with the rest, attempted to revolt. Shalmaneser accordingly invaded Syria, and in 724 began a three-years' siege of Samaria (2 Kings xvii. 5). He died before it was completed, but it was finished by Sargon, who reduced the city, deported its inhabitants, and established within it a mixed multitude of settlers (who were the ancestors of the modern Samaritans). These people themselves seem to have joined a revolt against the Assyrians, which was soon quelled. The next event we hear of in the history of the city is its conquest by Alexander the Great (331 B.C.), and later by Ptolemy Lagi and Demetrius Poliorcetes. It quickly recovered from these injuries: when John Hyrcanus besieged it in 120 B.C. it was " a very strong city " which offered a vigorous resistance (Jos. Ant. xiii. x. 2). It was rebuilt by Pompey, and restored by Aulus Gabinius: but it was to Herod that it owed much of its later glory. He built a great temple, a hippodrome and a street of columns surrounding the city, the remains of which still arrest the attention. It was renamed by him Sebaste, in honour of Augustus: this name still survives in the modern name Sebusteh.1 Philip here preached the gospel (Acts viii. 5). The rise of Neapolis (Shechem) in the neighbourhood caused the decay of Sebaste. It was quite small by the time of Eusebius. The crusaders did some- thing to develop it by establishing a bishopric with a large church, which still exists (as a mosque) ; here were shown the tombs of Elisha, Obadiah and St John the Baptist. From this time onward the village dwindled to the poor dirty place it is to-day. The site of Samaria is an enormous mound of accumulation, one of the largest in Palestine. In some places it is estimated the debris is at least 40 ft. deep. The crusaders' church remains almost intact, and numerous fragments of carved stone are built into the village houses, beneath which in some places are some interesting tombs. The hippodrome remains in the valley below, and the columns of the street of columns are in very good order. The walls can be traced almost all round the town: at the end of the mound opposite the modern village are the dilapidated ruins of a large gate. The site stands in the very centre of Palestine, and, built on a steep and almost isolated hill, with a long and spacious plateau for its summit, is naturally a position of much strength, commanding two of the most important roads — the great N. and S. road which passes immediately under the E. wall, and the road from Shechem to the maritime plain which runs a little to the W. of the city. The hill of Samaria is separated from the surrounding mountains (Amos iii. 9) by a rich and well-watered plain, from which it rises in successive terraces of fertile soil to a height of 400 or 500 ft. Only on the E. a narrow saddle, some 200 ft. beneath the plateau, runs across the plain towards the mountains ; it is at this point that the traveller coming from Shechem now ascends the hill to the village of Sebusteh, which occupies only the extreme E. of a terrace beneath the hill-top, behind the crusaders' church, which is the first thing that attracts the eye as one approaches the town. The hill-top, the longer axis of which runs W. from the village, rises 1450 ft. above the sea, and commands a superb view towards the Mediterranean, the mountains of Shechem and Mount Hermon. Excavations under the auspices of Harvard University began here in 1908. (R. A. S. M.) 1 Accentuated on the second syllable. Guide- and travel-books generally spell the name Sebastiyeh, which is not a correct rendering of the local pronunciation. SAMARITANS. This term, which primarily means " in- habitants of Samaritis, or the region of Samaria," is specially used, in the New Testament and by Josephus, as the name of a peculiar religious community which had its headquarters in the Samaritan country, and is still represented by a few families at Nablus, the ancient Shechem. By the Jews they are called Shomronim, a gentilic form from Shomron = Samaria; among themselves they sometimes use the name Shemerem ( = Heb. Shomerim) which is explained to mean " Keepers," sc. of the Law, but they usually style themselves " Israel " or " Children of Israel." They claim to be descendants of the ten tribes, and to possess the orthodox religion of Moses, accepting the Pentateuch and transmitting it in a Hebrew text which for the most part has only slight variations from that of the Jews. But they regard the Jewish temple and priesthood as schis- matical, and declare that the true sanctuary chosen by God is not Zion but Mount Gerizim, over against Shechem (St John iv. 20). The sanctity of this site they prove from the Pentateuch, reading Gerizim for Ebal in Deut. xxvii. 4. With this change the chapter is interpreted as a command to select Gerizim as the legitimate sanctuary (cf. verse 7). Moreover, in Exod. xx. 17 and Deut. v. 21 a commandment (taken from Deut. xxvii.) is found in the Samaritan text, at the close of the decalogue, giving directions to build an altar and do sacrifice on Gerizim, from which of course it follows that not only the temple of Zion but the earlier shrine at Shiloh and the priesthood of Eli were schismatical. Such at least is the express statement of the later Samaritans: in earlier times, as they had no sacred books except the Penta- teuch, they probably ignored the whole history between Joshua and the captivity, thus escaping many difficulties. According to modern views the books of Moses were not reduced to their present form till after the exile, when their regulations were clearly intended to apply to the rebuilt temple of Zion. The Samaritans must in that case have derived their Pentateuch from the Jews after Ezra's reforms of 444 B.C. Before that time Samaritanism cannot have existed in the form in which we know it, but there must have been a community ready to accept the Pentateuch. The city of Samaria had been taken by Assyria (2 Kings xvii. 6 sqq. and xviii. 9-11) in 722 B.C., and the inhabitants deported, but in point of fact the district of Mount Ephraim was not entirely stripped of its old Hebrew population by this means. In the Annals of Sargon the number of the exiles is put at 27,290, representing no doubt the more prominent of the inhabitants, for this number cannot include the whole of N. Israel. The poorer sort must have remained on the land, and among them the worship of Jehovah went on as before at the old shrines of N. Israel, but probably corrupted by the religious rites of the new settlers. The account of the country given in 2 Kings xvii. 25 seq. dwells only on the partial adoption of Jehovah-worship by the foreigners settled in the land, and by no means implies that these constituted the whole population. Josiah extended his reforms to Bethel and other Samaritan cities (2 Kings xxiii. 19), and the narrative shows that at that date things were going on at the N. sanctuaries much as they had done in the time of Amos and Hosea. To a considerable extent his efforts to make Jerusalem the sanctuary of Samaria as well as of Judah must have been successful, for in Jer. xli. 5 we find fourscore men from Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria making a pilgrimage to " the house of Jehovah," after the catastrophe of Zedekiah. It is therefore not surprising that the people of this district came to Zerubbabel and Jeshua after the restoration, claiming to be of the same religion with the Jews and asking to be associated in the rebuilding of the Temple. They were re- jected by the leaders of the new theocracy, who feared the result of admitting men of possibly mixed blood and of certainly questionable orthodoxy; and so the Jehovah- worshippers of Samaria were driven to the ranks of " the adversaries of Judah and Benjamin " (Ezra iv.). Nevertheless, down to the time of Nehemiah, the breach was not absolute; but the expulsion from Jerusalem in 432 B.C. of a man of high-priestly family (Neh. xiii. 28), who had married a daughter of Sanballat, made it so. It can hardly be doubted that this priest is the Manasseh of Josephus I IO SAMARITANS (Ant. xi. 8), who carried the Pentateuch to Shechem, and for whom the temple of Gerizim was perhaps built. For, though the story in Josephus is put a century too late and is evidently based on a confusion, it agrees with Neh. xiii. in essentials too closely to be altogether rejected,1 and supplies exactly what is wanted to explain the existence in Shechem of a community bitterly hostile to the Jews, yet constituted in obedience to Ezra's Pentateuch. It is remarkable that, having got the Pentateuch, they followed it with a fidelity as exact as that of the Jews, except in regard to the sanctuary on Mt Gerizim. The text of the sacred book was transmitted with as much conscientiousness as was observed by Jewish scribes;8 and even from the unwilling witness of the Jews* we gather that they fulfilled all righteousness with scrupulous punctiliousness so far as the letter of the law was concerned. They did not however, receive the writings even of the prophets of N. Israel (all of which are preserved to us only by the Jews) nor the later oral law4 as developed by the Pharisees. But although these differences separated the two communities, their internal development and external history ran parallel courses till the Jewish state took a new departure under the Maccabees. The religious resemblance, between the two bodies was increased by the institution of the synagogue, from which there grew up a Samaritan theology and an exegetical tradition. The latter is embodied in the Samaritan Targum, or Aramaic version of the Pentateuch, which in its present form is probably not much earlier than the 4th century A.D., but in general is said to agree with the readings of Origen's ri> ZaiMpftTtKov. Whether the latter represents a complete translation of the Law into Greek may be doubted, but at any rate the Samaritans began already in the time of Alexander to be influenced by Hellenism. They as well as Jews were carried to Egypt by Ptolemy Lagi, and the rivalry of the two parties was continued in Alexandria (Jos. Ant. xii. i.i), where such a translation may have been produced. Of the Samaritan contributions to Hel- lenistic literature some fragments have been preserved in the remains of Alexander Polyhistor.* •There are, however, many difficulties in the story, which is not rendered clearer by references to Sanballat in the documents from Elephantine (dated in 408/407 B.C.) published by Sachau in the Abhandlungen d. Kgl. prruss. Akad. d. Wiss. for 1907. * This appears by the frequent agreement of the Samaritan Pentateuch with the Septuagint. The Samaritan character is an independent development of the old Hebrew writing, as it was about the time when they first got the Pentateuch, and this in it>clf is an indication that from the first their text ran a separate course. Differences between MSS. existed down to the time of the Massoretes (see art. HEBREW), and it was from one of these divergent texts that the Samaritan was derived, the Septuagint from another. But while the Jews constantly revised their text with skill and success, the rigid conservatism of the Samaritans prevented any changes except the corruptions naturally due to human infirmity. The story that they possess a copy of the Law written by Abisha, the great-grandson of Aaron, seems to have aroused a strangely widespread interest, so that tourists invariably ask to see it and usually claim to have succeeded in doing so. Considering the extreme reverence with which it is regarded, it may safely be said that this manuscript is never shown to them. The origin of the legend is no doubt due to a pious fraud. It is first mentioned by Abu'1-fath in '355. from which year its " invention " dates. Obviously an old copy would be chosen for the purpose of such a discovery, but it is unlikely to be earlier than the lotn or nth century A.D. * Not, indeed, without exceptions, nor at all periods, but such is the general intention of the Massekheth Kuthim; see Montgomery, Samaritans, cap. x. 4 For details see Nutt, Fragments, p. 37, and more fully, Mont- gomery, I.e. No doubt, in addition to the legal ordinances, the Samaritans retained some ancient traditional practices (cf. Caster in Transactions of the 3rd Internai. Congr. for the History of Religions, i. p. 299. Oxford, 1908), or introduced some new observances. Their Passover, for instance, has some peculiar features, one of which, the application of the sacrificial blood to the faces of the children, has a parallel in the old Arabic 'oqiquh. See the account of an eye- witness (Professor Socin) in Baedeker's Palestine; Mills, Three Months' Residence at Nablus (London, 1864), p. 248; Stanley, The Jewish Church i. app. iii. * Chiefly in quotations by Eusebius (Praep. Ex., ed. Giffqrd, Oxpn., 1903, bk. ix. 17). See Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, i., ii. (Breslau, 1875); Schflrer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. ed., 1891), ii. 3. p. 197. The troubles that fell upon the Jews under Antiochus Epi- phanes were not escaped by the Samaritans (2 Mace. v. 23; vi. 2), for the account in Josephus (Ant. xii. 5. 5), which makes them voluntarily exchange their religion for the worship of the Grecian Zeus, is evidently coloured to suit the author's hostility. Under the Maccabees their relations with Judaea became very bitter. They suffered severely at the hands of Hyrcanus, and the temple on Mt Gerizim was destroyed. Although this treat- ment established an unalterable enmity to the Jews, as we see in the New Testament, in Josephus and in Jewish tradition, the two sects had too much in common not to unite occasionally against a common enemy, and in the struggles of the Jews with Vespasian the Samaritans took part against the Romans. They were not, however, consistent, for under Hadrian they helped the Romans against the Jews and were allowed to rebuild their temple on Mt Gerizim. They seem to have shared in the Jewish dispersion, since in later times we hear of Samaritans and their synagogues in Egypt, in Rcme and in other parts of the empire. In the 4th century they enjoyed a certain degree of prosperity, according to their own chronicles, under Baba the Great, who (re-) established their religious and social organization. In 484, in consequence of attacks on the Christians, the Gerizim temple was finally destroyed by the Romans, and an insurrection in 529 was suppressed by Justinian so effectively that, while retaining their distinctive religion, they became henceforth politically merged in the surrounding population, with a merely domestic history. They are mentioned in later times by the Jewish travellers Benjamin of Tudela (1173) and Obadiah Bertinoro (1488 in Egypt), by Sir John Maundeville and others, but little was known of them in Europe till Scaliger opened communications with them in 1583.* In consequence of the interest thus aroused, the traveller Pietro della Valle visited them in 1616 and succeeded in obtaining a copy of their Pentateuch and of their Targum. Towards the end of the same century Robert Hurrtington (after- wards bishop of Raphoe), who was chaplain to the Turkey merchants at Aleppo, interested himself in them7 and acquired some interesting manuscripts now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Since his time there has been intermittently a good deal of correspondence with them,8 and in recent years owing to the increased facilities for travelling they have been much visited by tourists, not altogether for their good, as well as by scholars. At the present day they live only at Nablus (Shechem), about 150 in number, the congregations formerly existing in Gaza. Cairo, Damascus and elsewhere having long since died out. Politically they are under the Turkish governor of Nablus; their ecclesiastical head is the " Priest-levite " (in 1009 Jacob b. Aaron), who claims descent from Uzziel the younger son of Kohath (Exod. vi. 18). The line of the high-priests, so called as being descended from Aaron, became extinct in 1623. In religion, since they recognize no sacred book but the Pentateuch, they agree with the Jews in such doctrines and observances only as are enjoined in the law of Moses. They do not therefore observe the feast of Purim, nor the fast of the 9tn of Ab, nor any of the later rabbinical extensions or modifications of the law. It is this con- servatism which has caused them to be confused with the Sadducees, who likewise rejected the later traditional teaching; but it is not correct to say that they deny the resurrection (as Epiphanius, Haeres. ix., and others) and the existence of angels (Leontius, de Sectis, ii. 8), or that they are entirely free from later religious de- velopments. Briefly summarized, their creed is as follows: (a) God is one, and in speaking of Him all anthropomorphic expressions are to be avoided: creation was effected by his word: divine appearances in the Pentateuch are to be explained as vicarious, by means of angels (so as early as the 4th century A.D.) ; (6) Moses is the only prophet : all who have since claimed to be so are deceivers ; (c) the Law, which was created with the world, is the only divine revelation; (d) Mt Gerizim is the house of God, the only centre of worship; (e) there will be a day of judgment. Closely connected with this are the doctrines (also found in the 4th century) of a future life and of a messiah (Ta'eb), who shall end the period of God's displeasure (Fanuta) under which his people have suffered since the schism of Eli and the disappearance of the Ark, and shall restore Israel to favour (Re'uta, Ridwan). • See Eichhorn's Repertorium, xiii. p. 257. 7 See his letters ed. by T. Smith (London, 1704). * See especially de Sacy in Notices et extraits, xii. The later letters are of less interest. SAMARIUM— SAMARKAND in The Samaritan language properly so called is a dialect of Palestinian Aramaic, of which the best examples are found in the literature of the 4th century A.D. An archaic alphabet, derived from the old Hebrew, was retained, and is still used by them for writing Aramaic, Hebrew and sometimes even Arabic. After the Moslem conquest of Syria in 632 the native dialect of Aramaic gradually died out, and by the nth century Arabic had become the literary as well as the popular language. In the Liturgy Hebrew was no doubt used from the earliest times side by side with Aramaic, and after the nth century it became, in a debased form, the only language for new liturgical compositions. The literature of the Samaritans is, like that of the Jews, almost entirely of a religious character. Reference has been made above to Samaritan Hellenistic works which have perished except for a few fragments. According to Samaritan tradition, their books were destroyed under Hadrian and Commodus, but of the language and contents of them nothing is recorded. There can be no doubt that some, perhaps much, of the literature has been lost, for nothing l is extant which can be dated before the 4th century A.D. The Targum, or Samaritan- Aramaic version of the Pentateuch was most probably written down aboyt that time, though it was clearly based on a much older tradition and must have undergone various recensions. To the same period belong the liturgical compositions of Amram Darah and Marqah, and the latter's midrashic commentary (called the " Book of Wonders ") on parts of the Pentateuch, all in Aramaic. With the possible exception of one or two hymns there is nothing further till the nth century when there appears the Arabic version of the Pentateuch, usually ascribed to Abu Sa'id, but perhaps really by Abu'l-hasan a of Tyre, who also wrote three Arabic treatises, still extant, on theological subjects, besides some hymns. Of the same date (1053) is an anonymous commentary * on Genesis, preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MS. Opp. add. 4°, 99), interesting because it quotes from books of the Bible other than the Pentateuch. In the lath century, Munajja * and his son Sadaqah wrote on theology; the earlier part of the chronicle called al-Taulidah 6 was compiled, in Hebrew (1149); and about the same time treatises on Grammar' by Abu Sa'id and Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Faraj. The next 100 years were rather barren. Ghazal ibn-al-Duwaik, who wrote on the story of Balak and on the restoration of the kingdom to Israel, is said to have lived in the llth century, and another chronicle (in Arabic), called the Book of Joshua, is dated about the same time byT. W. J. Juynbpll.7 In the second half of the I4th century lived three important liturgical writers, Abisha b. Phinehas (ob. 1376), Abdallah b. Solomon and Sa'd-allah (or Sa'd-ed-din) b. Sadaqah: Abu'1-fatb, who composed his chronicle8 in 1355: a high priest Phinehas, author of a lexicon: and the anonymous writer of the commentary on the Kitab al-asatir,9 a work, ascribed to Moses, containing legends of the Patriarchs. Another famous liturgist Abraham Qaba?i lived in the early part of the i6th century, and his pupil Isma'il Rumailji in 1537 wrote a work on the praise of Moses. Probably about the same time, or a little later, is another anonymous commentary on Genesis in the Huntington Collection in the Bodleian Library (MS. Hunt. 301). Several members of the Danfi family were Crominent in the i8th century as liturgists, among them Abraham . Jacob, who also wrote a commentary u on Gen.-Num., and of the levitical family Ghazal ibn Abi Sarur, who commented on Gen.-Exod. Another Ghazal ( =Tabiah n. Isaac), priest-levite, who died in 1786, was a considerable writer of liturgy. Subsequent authors are few and of little interest. Mention need only be made of the chronicle u written (i.e. compiled) in Hebrew by Ab Sakhwah ( = Murjan u) b. As'ad, of the Danfi family, in 1900, chiefly on the basis of al-Taulidah and Abu'1-fath; an Arabic chronicle13 by Phinehas b. Isaac (ob. 1 Except, of course, the Pentateuch itself (see BIBLE) which cannot be properly regarded as a Samaritan work. I So Kahle, see the bibliography. 3 See Neubauer in Journ. asiat. (1873), p. 341. 4 See Wreschner, Samaritanische Traditwnen (Berlin, 1888). * Ed. by Neubauer in Journ. asiat. (1869). The chronicle was continued in 1346, and was subsequently brought down to 1856- 1857 by the present priest. « See Noldeke, Colt. Gel. Nachr. (1862), Nos. 17, 20. 7 Chronicon Sam. . . . Liber Josuae (Lugd. Bat., 1848). It narrates the history from the death of Moses to the 4th century A.D. and is derived from sources of various dates. A Hebrew book of Joshua announced by Gaster in The Times of June 9, 1908, and published in ZDMG, vol. 62 (1908) pt. ii., is a modern compilation; see Yahuda in Sitsgsber. d. Kgl. Preuss. Akad. (1908), p. 887, and Caster's reply in ZDMG, 62, pt. iii. 8 Ed. by Vilmar (Gotha, 1865). Partly translated by Payne Smith in Heidenheim's Vierteljahrsschrift, vol. ii. 9 Translated by Leitner in Held. Viert. iv. 1841 &c. 10 An account of the work (of which the only MS. is in Berlin) was given by Geiger in ZDMG, xx. p. 143 and later. Parts of it were published as dissertations by Klumel in 1902 and Hanover 1904. II Ed. by E. N. Adler and M. Seligsohn in the Revue des etudes juwes, vols. 44-46. 12 The same who compiled Gaster's book of Joshua. 11 Mentioned by Yahuda, op. cit. p. 895, as existing in a Berlin MS. 1898) of the levitical family ; and a theological work,14 also in Arabic by the present priest-levite, Jacob b. Aaron. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — -General: Nutt, Fragments of a Samaritan Targum . . . with ... a Sketch of Sam. History, &c. (London, 1874); Montgomery, The Samaritans (Philadelphia, 190?), an ex- cellent account with full bibliography; Petermann, Brevis ling, sam. grammatica (Porta Lingg. Orient.), Leipzig, 1873; Stein- schneider, Die arabische Literatur d. Juden, p. 319 sqq. (Frankfurt, 1902). Texts: the Pentateuch in the Paris and London Polyglotts; separately by Blayney (Oxford, 1790)- A critical edition is in prepara- tion by the Freiherr von Gall. Targum in the Polyglotts; reprinted in square character by Briill (Frankfurt, 1874-1879); with critical apparatus by Petermann and Vollers (Berolini, 1872-1891); cf. also Nutt, op. cit.; Kohn, " Zur Sprache . . . der Samaritaner," pt. ii. (Leipzig, 1876) (in Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morqenlandes, v. 4); Kahle, Textkritische . . . Bemerkungen . . . (Leipzig, 1898) and Zeitsch. f. Assyr. xvi., xvii. Arabic version, ed. by Kuenen (Gen.- Lev.), Lugd. Bat. (1851); cf. Bloch, Die Sam.-arab. Pent.-iiberset- zung, Deut. i.-xi. (Berlin, 1901); Kahle, Die arab. Bibelubersetzungen (Leipzig, 1904); Heidenheim, Der Commentar Marqahs (Weimar, 1896). Parts also in dissertations by Baneth (1888), Munk (1890), Emmerich (1897), Hildesheimer (18^8). Various texts and transla- tions, mostly liturgical, in Heidenheim's Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift (Gotha, 1864-1865, Zurich 1867- ?) often incorrect, cf. Geiger in ZDMG, xvi.-xxii. Cowley, The Samaritan Liturgy (Oxford, 1909), text and introduction. For editions of other works see the foregoing footnotes. (A. CY.) SAMARIUM [symbol Sm, atomic weight 150-4 (0=i6)], a rare earth metal (see RARE EARTHS). The separation has been worked at by A. v. Welsbach, L. de Boisbaudran, Urbain and Lacombe (Complex rendus, 1903, 137 pp. 568, 792); Demarcay (ibid. 1900, 130, p. 1019); Benedicks; Feit and Przibylla (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 202) and others. The metal may be obtained by reduction of its oxide with magnesium. It combines with hydrogen to form a hydride. The salts are mostly of a yellowish colour. The chloride, SmClj. 6H2O, is a deliquescent solid which when heated in hydrochloric acid gas to 180° C. yields the anhydrous chloride. This anhydrous chloride is reduced to a lower chloride, of composition SmClz, when heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen or ammonia (Matignon and Cazes, Comptes rendus, ,1906, 142, p. 183). The chloride, SmCh, is a brown crystalline powder which is decom- posed by water with liberation of hydrogen and the formation of the oxide, SmjOs, and an oxychloride, SmOCl. The fluoride, SmFj.HzO, was prepared by H. Moissan by acting with fluorine on the carbide. The sulphate, Sm 2(804)3.81120, is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on the nitrate. It forms double salts with the alkaline sulphates. The carbide, SmC2, is formed when the oxide is heated with carbon in the electric furnace. SAMARKAND, a province of Russian Turkestan, formerly Zarafshan or Zerafshan. It is the ancient Sogdiana and was known as Sughd to the Moslems of the middle ages. It has on the N. and N.E. the province of Syr-darya, on the E. Ferghana, on the W. Bokhara and on the S. the khanates of Hissar, Kara- teghin and Darvaz. Its area is 26,627 sq. m. It is very hilly in the S., where it is intersected by ranges belonging to the Alai system. The Hissar range is the water-parting between the Zarafshan and the upper tributaries of the Amu-darya; another high range, the Zarafshan, runs between the two parallel rivers, the Zarafshan and its tributary, the Yagnob; while a third range, often called the Turkestan chain, stretches W. to E. parallel to the Zarafshan, on its N. bank. It is very probable that the three ranges referred to really possess a much more complicated character than is supposed. All three ranges are snow-clad, and their highest peaks reach altitudes of 18,500 ft. in the W. and 22,000 ft. in the E., while the passes over them, which are difficult as a rule, lie at altitudes of 12,000 ft. Several Alpine lakes, such as Iskander-kul, 7000 ft. high, have been found under the precipitous peaks. The Alpine zone extends as far N. as the 4oth parallel, beyond which the province is steppe-land, broken by only one range of mountains, the Nuratyn-tau, also known as Sanzar and Malguzar in the S.E. and as Kara-tau in the N.W. This treeless range stretches 160 m. N.W., has a width of about 35 m. and reaches altitudes of 7000 ft. It is pierced, in the Sanzar gorge, or Tamer- lane's Gate, by the rail way leading from Samarkand to Tashkent. 14 Translated in Bibliotheca sacra (1906), p. 385, &c. 112 SAMARKAND The other mountains in the province are well wooded, and it is estimated that nearly 4,500,000 acres are under forests. The N.W. portion is occupied by the Famine Steppe — which probably might be irrigated — and by the desert of Kyzyl-kum. The Famine or Hungry Steppe (not to be confounded with another desert of the same name, the Bek-pak-dala, to the W. of Lake Balkash) occupies nearly 5,000,000 acres, covered with loess-like clay. In the spring the steppe offers good pasture-grounds for the Kirghiz, but the grass withers as summer advances. Nearly 1,500,000 acres might, however, be irrigated and rendered available for the cultivation of cotton; indeed a beginning has been made in that direction. The Kyzyl-kum Steppe, 88,000 sq. m., is crossed by rocky hills, reaching an altitude of 3500 ft., and consists in part of saline clays, patches of prairie land and sand. The sand is especially prevalent on the margin, where the moving barkkans (crescent-shaped sandhills) invade the Kara-kul oasis of Bokhara. The vegetation is very poor, as a rule; grass and flowers (tulips, Rheum, various Umbelliferae) only appear for a short time in the spring. The barkhans produce nothing except Haloxylon ammodendron, Poligonum, Halimodendron, Atraphaxis and other steppe bushes; occasionally Stipa grass is seen on the slopes of the sandhills, while Artemisia and Tamarix bushes grow on the more compact sands. Water can only be obtained from wells, sometimes 140 ft. deep. A few Kirghiz are the sole inhabitants, and they are only found in the more hilly parts. The chief river is the Zarafshan, which, under the name of Mach, rises in the Zarav glacier in the Kok-su mountain group. Navigation is only possible by rafts, from Penjikent downwards. The river is heavily drawn upon for irrigation; and to this it probably owes its name (" gold-spreading ") rather than to the gold which is found in small quantities in its sands. Over 80 main canals (ariks) water 1200 sq. m. in Samarkand, while 1640 sq. m. are watered in Bokhara by means of over 40 main canals. Beyond Lake Kara-kul it is lost in the sands, before reaching the Amu-darya to which it was formerly tributary. The N.E. of the province is watered by the Syr-darya. One of the lakes, the Tuz-kaneh (40 m. from Jizakh) yields about 1300 tons of salt annually. The average temperature for the year'is 55-4° F. at Samarkand, and 58° at Khojent and Jizakh; but the average temperature for the winter is only 34°, and frosts of 4° and 1 1° have been experienced at Samarkand and Khojent respectively; on the other hand, the average temperature for July is 79° at Samarkand and 85° at Khojent and Jizakh. The total precipitation (includ- ing snow in winter) is only 6-4 in. at Khojent, 12 in. at Samarkand and 24 in. at Jizakh. The hilly tracts have a healthy climate, but malaria and mosquitoes prevail in the lower regions. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,090,400. The Uxbegs form two-thirds of the population, and after them the Kirghiz and Tajiks (27%) are the most numerous; Jews, Tatars, Afghans and Hindus are also met with. In 1898 nearly 1,000,000 acres were irrigated, and about 800,000 acres partly irrigated. The chief crops are wheat, rice and barley. Sorghum, millet, Indian corn, peas, lentils, haricots, flax, hemp, poppy, lucerne, madder, tobacco, melons and mushrooms are also grown. Two crops are often taken from the same piece of land in one season. Cotton is extensively grown, and 21,000 acres are under vineyards. Sericulture prospers, especially in the Khojent district. Live-stock breeding is the chief occupation of iLe Kirghiz. Weaving, saddlery, boot- making, tanneries, oil works and metal works exist in many villages and towns, while the nomad Kirghiz excel in making felt goods and carpets. There are glass works, cotton-cleaning works, steam flour mills and distilleries. Some coal, sulphur, ammonia and gypsum are obtained. Trade is considerable, the chief exports being rice, raw cotton, raisins, dried fruit, nuts, wine and silk. The Central Asian railway crosses the province from Bokhara to Samarkand and Tashkent. The province is divided into four districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are: Samarkand (q.v), Jizakh (16,041), Kati-kurgan (10,083) and Khojent (30,076). SAMARKAND, a city of Russian Central Asia, anciently Maracanda, the capital of Sogdiana, then the residence of the Moslem Samanid dynasty, and subsequently the capital of the Mongol prince Tamerlane, is now chief town of the province of the same name. It lies 220 m. by rail S.W. of Tashkent, and 156 m. E. of Bokhara, in 39° 39' N. and 66° 45' E., 2260 ft. above the sea, in the fertile valley of the Zarafshan, at the point where it issues from the W. spurs of the Tian-shan before entering the steppes of Bokhara. The Zarafshan now flows 5 m. N. of the city. In 1897 the population numbered 40,000 in the native city, and 15,000 in the new Russian town, inclusive of the military (80% Russians). The total population was 58,194 in 1900, and of these only 23,194 were women. Maracanda, a great city, was destroyed by Alexander the Great in 329 B.C. It reappears as Samarkand at the time of the conquest by the Arabs, when it was finally reduced by Kotaiba ibn Moslim in A.D. 711-712. Under the Samanids it became a brilliant seat of Arabic civilization, and was so populous that, when besieged by Jenghiz Khan in 1221, it is reported to have been defended by 110,000 men. Destroyed and pillaged by that chieftain, its population was reduced to one-quarter of what it had been. When Timur made it his residence (in 1369) the inhabitants numbered 150,000. The magnificent buildings of the successors of Timur, which still remain, testify to its former wealth. But at the beginning of the i8th century it is reported to have been almost without inhabitants. It fell under Chinese dominion, and subsequently under that of the amir of Bokhara. But no follower of Islam enters it without feeling that he is on holy ground ; although the venerated mosques and beautiful colleges 'are falling into ruins, its influence as a seat of learning has vanished, and its very soil is profaned by infidels. It was not without a desperate struggle that the Mahommedans permitted the Russians to take their holy city. The present city is quadrangular and is enclosed by a low wall 9 m. long. The citadel is in the W., and to the W. of this the Russians have laid out since 1871 a new town, with broad streets and boulevards radiating from the citadel. The central part of Samarkand is the Righistan — a square fenced in by the three madrasahs (colleges) of Ulug-beg, Shir-dar and Tilla-kari; in its architectural symmetry and beauty this is rivalled only by some of the squares of certain Italian cities. An immense doorway decorates the front of each of these large quadrilateral buildings. A high and deep-pointed porch, reaching almost to the top of the lofty facade, is flanked on each side by a broad quadrilateral pillar of the same height. Two fine columns, profusely decorated, in turn flank these broad pillars. On each side of the high doorway are two lower archways connecting it with two elegant towers, narrowing towards the top and slightly inclined. The whole of the facade and also the interior courts are profusely decorated with enamelled tiles, whose colours — blue, green, pink and golden, but chiefly turquoise-blue — are wrought into the most fascinating designs, in striking harmony with the whole and with each part of the building. Over the interior are bulbed or melon-like domes, perhaps too heavy for • the facade. The most renowned of these three madrasahs is that of Ulug-beg, built in 1434 by a grandson of Timur. It is smaller than the others, but it was to its school of mathematics and astronomy that Samarkand owed its renown in the isth century. A winding street, running N.E. from the Righistan, leads to a much larger square in which are the college of Bibikhanum on the W., the graves of Timur's wives on the S. and a bazaar on the E. The college was erected in 1388 by a Chinese wife of Timur. To the N., outside the walls of Samarkand, but close at hand, is the Hazret Shah-Zindeh, the summer-palace of Timur, and near this is the grave of Shah-Zindch, or, more precisely, Kasim ibn Abbas, a companion of Timur. This was a famous shrine in the I4th century (Ibn Batuta's Travels, Hi. 52); it is believed that the saint will one day rise for the defence of his religion. The Hazret Shah-Zindeh stands on a terrace reached by forty marble steps. The decoration of the interior halls is marvellous. Another street running S.W. from the Righistan leads to the SAMBALPUR— SAMBOURNE Gur-Amir, the tomb of Timur. This consists of a chapel crowned with a dome, enclosed by a wall and fronted by an archway. Time and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine building. The interior walls are covered with elegant turquoise arabesques and inscriptions in gold. The citadel (reconstructed in 1882 and preceding years) is situated on a hill whose steep slopes render it one of the strongest in Central Asia. Its walls, 3000 yds. in circuit and about 10 ft. high, enclose a space of about 90 acres. Within it are the palace of the amir of Bokhara — a vulgar modern building now a hospital— and the audience hall of Timur — a long narrow court, surrounded by a colonnade, and containing the kok-lash, or stone of justice. Ruins of former buildings — heaps of plain and enamelled bricks, among which Graeco-Bactrian coins have been found — occur over a wide area round the present city, especially on the W. and N. The name of Aphrosiab is usually given to these ruins. Five m. S.W. of Samarkand is the college Khoja Akrar; its floral ornamentation in enamelled brick is one of the most beautiful in Samarkand. Nothing but the ruins of a palace now mark the site of a once famous garden, Baghchi-sarai. Of the Graeco-Armenian library said to have been brought to Samarkand by Timur no traces have been discovered, and Vambery regards the legend as invented by the Armenians. Every trace of the renowned high school Kalinder-khaneh has also disappeared. The present Moslem city is an intricate labyrinth of narrow, winding streets, bordered by dirty courtyards and miserable houses. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is gardening. There is a certain amount of industry in metallic wares, tallow and soap, tanneries, potteries, various tissues, dyeing, harness, boots and silver and gold wares. The best harness, ornamented with turquoises, and the finer products of the goldsmith's art, are imported from Bokhara and Afghanistan. The products of the local potteries are very fine. The bazaars of Samarkand are more animated and kept with much greater cleanliness than those of Tashkent and Namangan. The trade is very brisk,- the chief items being cotton, silk, wheat and rice, horses, asses, fruits and cutlery. Wheat, rice and silk are exported chiefly to Bokhara; cotton to Russia, via Tashkent. Silk wares and excellent fruits are imported from Bokhara, and rock-salt from Hissar. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SAMBALPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Orissa division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the river Mahanadi, 495 ft. above sea-level, the terminus of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 12,870. It contains a ruined fort with old temples. The garrison of native infantry was withdrawn in 1902. There is considerable trade, and hand- weaving of tussore silk and cotton cloth are carried on. The DISTRICT OF SAMBALPUR has an area of 3773 sq. m. The Mahanadi, which is the only important river, divides it into unequal parts. The greater portion is an undulating plain, with ranges of rugged hills running in every direction, the largest of which is the Bara Pahar, covering an area of 350 sq. m., and attaining at Debrigarh a height of 2267 ft. above the plain. The Mahanadi affords means of water communication for 90 m.; its principal tributaries in Sambalpur are the Ib, Kelo and Jhira. To the W. of the Mahanadi the district is well cultivated. The soil is generally light and sandy. It is occupied for the greater part by crystalline metamorphic rocks; but part of the N.W. corner is composed of sandstone, limestone and shale. Gold dust and diamonds have been found near Hirakhuda or Diamond Island, at the junction of the Ib and Mahanadi. The climate of Sambalpur is considered very unhealthy; the annual rainfall averages 59 in. The population in 1901 was 640,243, showing an increase of 3-2% in the decade. The registered death-rate for 1897 was only 30 per thousand, as against 68 for the province generally. This figure shows that Sambalpur entirely escaped the famine of 1896-1897, which indeed can be said to have brought prosperity to the district by causing high prices for a good rice crop, rice being the staple of cultivation. It was almost equally fortunate in 1900. The main line of the Bengal- Nagpur railway runs along the N. border of the district, with a branch S. to Sambalpur town. Sambalpur lapsed to the British in 1849, and was attached to Bengal until 1862, when it was transferred to the Central Pro- vinces. The early revenue administration was not successful. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 a general rising of the chiefs took place, and it was not until the final arrest of Surandra Sa, in 1864, that tranquillity was restored. In October 1905 Sambalpur was transferred back again to Bengal, without the subdivisions of Phuljhar and Chandarpur-Padampur. See Sambalpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1909). SAMBHAR LAKE, a salt lake in Rajputana, India, on the borders of the two states of Jodhpur and Jaipur. The town of the same name has a railway station 53 m. N.E. from Ajmer: pop. (1901) 10,873. The area of the lake when full is about 90 sq. m., but it usually dries up altogether in the hot season. Since 1870 the British government has worked the salt under a lease from the two states interested, supplying great part of N. and Central India. The annual output averages about 126,000 tons, yielding a profit of more than half a million sterling. SAMBLANfAY, or SEMBLANCAY, a French noble family of Touraine, sprung from the merchant class. The founder of the family was JEAN DE BEAUNE (d. c. 1489), treasurer of Louis XI., who narrowly escaped death for conspiracy under Charles VIII. His son, JACQUES DE BEAUNE, baron de Samblancay, vicomte de Tours, became general of finances before 1497, and from 1518 was superintendent of finances. Convicted of peculation in connexion with the supplies for the army in Italy, he was executed at Montfaucon on the gth of August 1527. His eldest son, MARTIN DE BEAUNE, who became archbishop of Tours in 1520, died in the same year as his father. Another son, GUILLAUME DE BEAUNE, general of finances under his father, and banished from 1527 to 1535, was the father of the famous prelate, RENAUD DE BEAUNE (1527-1606), archbishop of Bourges (1581) and of Sens (1595). His efforts at pacification during the wars of religion culminated in the conversion of Henry IV., and it was he who presided at the ceremony of the king's abjuration of Protestantism on the 2Sth of July 1593. Renaud was one of the most famous orators of his time, and some of his productions have come down to us, as well as his Reformation de I'universite de Paris (1605 and 1667). A less honourable descendant of Jacques de Beaune was CHARLOTTE DE BEAUNE-SAMBLANQAY (£.1550-1617), a courtesan whom Catherine de Medici employed to discover the secrets of her courtly enemies. She counted among her lovers and dupes the king of Navarre (Henry IV.), the due d'Alencon (Henry III.), Henry I., due de Guise and others. The due de Guise was killed when leaving her apart- ments in the early morning of Christmas Day 1588. She was married early in life to Simon de Fizes, baron de Sauves, a secretary of state, and again in 1584 to Francois de la Tremoille, marquis de Noirmoutiers, by whom she had a son, Louis, ist due de Noirmoutiers, a ducal line which became extinct in 1733. Charlotte died on the 3oth of September 1617. SAMBOURNE, EDWARD LINLEY (1844-1910), English draughtsman, illustrator and designer, was born in London, on the 4th of January 1844. He was educated at the City of London School, and also received a few months' education at the South Kensington School of Art. After a six years' " gentleman apprenticeship " with John Penn & Son, marine engineers, Greenwich, his humorous and fanciful sketches made surreptitiously in the drawing-office of that firm were shown to Mark Lemon, editor of Punch, and at once secured him an invitation to draw for that journal. In April 1867 appeared his first sketch, " Pros and Cons," and from that time his work was regularly seen, with rare exceptions, in the weekly pages of Punch. In 1871 he was called to the Punch "table." At the beginning he made his name by his " social " drawings and especially by his highly elaborated initial letters. He drew his first political cartoon, properly so-called, in 1884, and ten years later began regularly to design the weekly second cartoon, following Sir John Tenniel as chief cartoonist in 1901. Examples of his best work in book illustration are in Sir F. C. Burnand's New Sandford and Merton (1872), and in Charles Kingsley's Water Babies (1885), which contains some of his most delicate SAMBUCA— SAMNITES and delightful drawings. The design for the Diploma for the Fisheries Exhibition (1883) is of its kind one of the most extra- ordinary things in English art. As a political designer, while distinguished for wit and force, he was invariably refined and good-humoured to the uttermost; yet it is essentially as an artist that he takes his highest place. He died on the 3rd of August IQIO. See M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (London, 1895). SAMBUCA, SAMBUTE, SAMBIUT, SAMBUE, SAMBUQUE, an ancient stringed instrument of Asiatic origin generally supposed to be a small triangular harp of shrill tone (Arist. Quint. Meib. ri. p. 101). The sambuca was probably identical with the Phoenician sabecha and the Aramaic sabka, the Greek form being ere, 1905) ; and the Urkundenbuch des Bistums Samland, edited by WoTky and Mendthal (Leipzig, 1891-1904). "See Michael Praetorius, Syni. Mus. (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), p. 248 and pi. 42, where the illustr.it ion resembles a tambourine, but the description mentions strings, showing that the author himself was puzzled. SAMNAN, SIMNAN, or SEMNAN, a small province of Persia, which, including the city and district of Damghan, is generally known as " Samnan va Damghan. " It is bounded on the W. by the districts of Khar (the ancient Choara) and F^ruzkuh, on the N. by Mazandaran, and on the E. by Shahrud and Bostam. In the S. it extends beyond the oasis of Jendek in the desert N. of Yezd. Its northern part is still known as Komush or Komish, the ancient Commisene. The revenue amounts to about £7000 per annum. SAMNAN, the capital of the province, is situated 145 m. E. of Teheran, on the high road thence to Meshed, at an altitude of 3740 ft. in 35° 34' N., 53° 22' E. It has a population of about 10,000, post and telegraph offices, and a fine minaret, built in the 1 2th century. It exports pistachios, almonds and coarse tobacco. A dialect with many old Persian forms and resembling the Mazan- daran dialect is spoken. A. Houtum-Schindler, " Bericht fiber d. Samnan Dialect," Zeitsch. d. morgenl. Gesellschaft, vol. xxxii. (1878). SAMNITES, the name given by the Romans to the warlike tribes inhabiting the mountainous centre of the S. half of Italy. The word Samnites was not the name, so far as we know, used by the Samnites themselves, which would seem rather to have been (the Oscan form of) the word which in Latin appears as Sabini (see below). The ending of Samnites seems to be con- nected with the name by which they were known to the Greeks' of the Carnpanian coast, which by the time of Polybius had become ZawtTai; and it is in connexion with the Greeks of Cumae and Naples that we first hear of the collision between Rome and the Samnites.2 We know both from tradition and from surviving inscriptions (see OSCA LINGUA and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 169 to 206) that they spoke Oscan; and tradition records that the Samnites were an offshoot of the Sabines (see e.g. Festus, p. 326 Mueller). On two inscriptions, of which one is unfortunately incomplete, and the other is the legend on a coin of the Social War, we have the form Safinim, which would be in Latin *Sabinium, and is best regarded as the nominative or accusative singular, neuter or masculine, agreeing with some substantive understood, such as nummum (see R. S. Conway, ibid. pp. 188 and 216). The abundance of the ethnica ending in the suffix -no- in all the Samnite districts classes them unmistakably with the great Safine stock, so that linguistic evidence confirms tradition (see further SABINI). The Samnites are thus shown to be intimately related to the patrician class at Rome (see ROME: history, ad init.), so that it was against their own stock that' the Romans had to fight their hardest struggle for the lordship of Italy, a struggle which might never have arisen but for the geographical accident by which the Etruscan and Greek settle- ments of Campania divided into two halves the Safine settle- ments in central Italy. The longest and most important monument of the Oscan language, as it was spoken by the Samnites (in, probably, the 3rd century B.C.) is the small bronze tablet, engraved *on both sides, known as the Tabula Agnonensis, found in 1848 at the modern village Agnone, in the heart of the Samnite district, not very far from the site of Bovianum, which was the centre of the N. group of Samnites called Pentri (see below). This inscription, now preserved in the British Museum, is carefully engraved in full Oscan alphabet, and perfectly legible (facsimile given by Mommsen, Unteritalische Dialekte, Taf. 7, and by I. Zvetaieff, Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum). The text and com- mentary will be found in Conway, op. cit. p. 191: it contains a list of deities to whom statues were erected in the precinct sacred to Ceres, or some allied divinity, and on the back a list of deities to whom altars were erected in the same place. Among those whose names are immediately intelligible may be mentioned those of "Jove the Ruler " and of " Hercules Cerealis." The other names are full of interest for the student of both the languages 1 For the difficult questions involved in the obscure and frag- mentary accounts of the so-called First Samnite War, which ended in 341 B.C., the reader is referred to J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed., pp. 442 flf., and to the commentators on Livy vii. 29 ff. SAMOA and the religious of ancient Italy. The latest attempts at inter- pretation will be found in R. S. Conway, Dialeclorum Italicarum exempla selecta (s.v.) and C. D. Buck, Oscan and Umbrian Grammar, p. 254. The Samnite towns in or near the upper valley of the Volturnus, namely, Telesia, Allifae, Aesernia, and the problematic Phistelia, learnt the art of striking coins from their neighbours in Campania, on the other side of the valley, Compulteria and Venafrum, in the 4th century B.C. (see Conway, op. cit. p. 196). The Samnite alliance when it first appears in history, in the 4th century B.C., included those tribes which lay between the Paeligni to the N., the Lucani to the S., the Campani to the W., the Frentani and Apuli to the E.: that is to say, the Hirpini, Pentri and Caraceni, and perhaps also the Caudini (J. Beloch, Italischer Bund, p. 167, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 169 and 183); but with these are sometimes classed other friendly and kindred communities in neighbouring territory, like the Frentani and Atina (Liv. x. 39). But after the war with Pyrrhus the Romans for ever weakened the power of the Italic tribes by dividing this central mountainous tract into two halves. The territories of the Latin colony Beneventum (268 B.C.) and the Ager Taurasinus (Livy xl. 38, C.I.L., ist ed., i. 30) united that of Saticula on the W. (313 B.C.) to that of Luceria on the E., and cut off the Hirpini from their kinsmen by a broad belt of land under Latin occupation (Velleius Pat. i. 14; Liv. Ix. 26). At the same time Allifae and Venafrum became praefectures (Fest. p. 233 M), and the Latin colony of Aesernia was founded in 263 B.C. in purely Samnite territory to command the upper Volturnus valley. We hear of no further resistance in the N. of Samnium till the general rising of Italy in 90 B.C.; but the more southerly Hirpini (q.v.) henceforth acted independently. (R. S. C.) SAMOA, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, about 1 50 m. N. of Tonga and nearly midway between the New Hebrides and Tahiti, 1600 m. from Auckland (New Zealand), 2410 from Sydney and 4200 from San Francisco. (For Map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) It consists of 14 islands forming a slightly curved chain from W. by N. to E. by S., between 13° 30' and 14° 3°' S., 168° and 173° W. as follows: Savaii, Manono, Apolima, Upolu, Fanua- tapu, Manua, Nuutele and Nuulua, belonging to Germany, and Tutuila, Anua, Ofu, Olosenga, Tau and Rose, belonging to the United States of America. The principal of these are Savaii (area, 660 sq. m., pop. 13,200), Upolu (340 sq. m., pop. 18,400), Tutuila (54 sq. m., pop. 3800), and the Manua group, which includes Tau with Ofu and Olosenga (25 sq. m., pop. 2000). Some of the smaller islands are also thickly populated, so that the total population is about 39,000, whites numbering about 500. With the exception of Rose Island, which is an uninhabited coral islet 70 m. E. of its nearest neighbour, and therefore scarcely belongs geographically to the group, all the islands are considerably elevated, with several extinct or quiescent craters rising from 2000 ft. in Upolu to 4000 (Mua) in Savaii. Although there are no active cones, Upolu has in comparatively recent times been subject to volcanic disturbances, and according to a local tradition, outbreaks must have occurred in the I7th or 1 8th century. In 1866 a submarine volcano near the islet of Olosenga was the scene of a violent commotion, discharging rocks and mud to a height of 2000 ft. Earthquakes are not uncommon and sometimes severe. Coral reefs protect the coasts in many parts; they are frequently interrupted, but the passages through them are often difficult of navigation. The whole group is abundantly watered, and the igneous soil is marvellously fertile. The scenery of the islands is extremely beautiful. Upolu is long and narrow; it has a backbone of mountains whose flanks are scored with lovely valleys, at the foot of which are flat cultivable tracts. Of its harbours Apia and Saluafata, both on the N. coast, are most important. Mount Vaea, which overlooks Apia and Vailima, the home of Robert Louis Stevenson, is his burial-place and bears a monument to his memory. Tutuila, the principal island belonging to the United States, resembles Upolu, and has on its S. side the harbour of Pago Pago or Pango Pango, the finest in the group. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate is moist and sometimes oppressively hot, though pleasant on the whole. A fine season extends from April to September; a wet season from October to March. The temperature is equable — at Apia the mean annual temperature is 78 F., the warmest month being December (80°) and the coldest July (75°-76°). The prevalent winds, which temper the heat, are the S.E. trades, but W. winds supervene from January to March. The archipelago lies in the track of the fierce hurricanes which occur usually in this period. On the l6th of March 1889 the heavy tidal waves created havoc in the harbour of Apia. The American warship " Nipsic " was cast upon the beach, but was afterwards floated and saved. Two other United States warships, " Trenton " and " Vandalia," were beaten to pieces on the coral reef; and the German warships " Olga " and " Eber " were wrecked with great loss of life. The British warship " Calliope " (Captain Pearson) was in the harbour, but succeeded in getting up steam and, standing out to sea, escaped destruction. In A Footnote to History R. L. Stevenson vividly describes the heroism of the captain and crew. The Samoan forests are remarkable for the size and variety of their trees, and the luxuriance and beauty of tree-ferns, creepers and parasites. The coco-nut palm and bread-fruit are of peculiar value to the inhabitants; there are sixteen varieties of the one, and twenty of the other. Hand timber trees, of use in boat-building, &c., are especially characteristic of Savaii. Of the extremely limited Samoan fauna, consisting mainly of an indigenous rat, four species of snakes and a few birds, the most interesting member is the Didunculus strigiroslris, a ground pigeon of iridescent greenish-black and bright chestnut plumage, which forms a link between the extinct dodo and the living African Treroninae. Natives. — The Samoans are pure Polynesians, and according to the traditions of many Polynesian peoples Savaii was the centre of dispersion of the race over the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to New Zealand. Apart from tradition, Samoan is the most archaic of all the Polynesian tongues, and still preserves the organic jetter j, which becomes h or disappears in nearly all the other archipelagos. Thus the term Savaii itself, originally Savaiki, is supposed to ha_ve been carried by the Samoan wanderers over the ocean to Tahiti, New Zealand, the Marquesas and Sandwich groups, where it still survives in such variant forms as Havaii, Hawaiki, Havaiki and Hawaii. In any case, the Samoans are the most perfect type of Polynesians, of a light brown colour, splendid physique, and hand- some regular features, with an average height of 5 ft. 10 in. Their mental and social standard is high among Pacific peoples; they are simple, honourable, generous and hospitable, but brave fighters. Their idolatry (polytheistic) was unaccompanied by human sacrifice. The dead were buried, and their spirits believed to travel to a world entered by a pool at the western extremity of Savaii. They have become mainly Protestants, Catholics or Mormons, but retain many superstitions connected with their native religion. The women and children are well treated. A youth is not regarded as eligible to marry till tattooed from the hips to the knees. The principal foods of the Samoans are vegetables, coco-nut, bread-fruit, fish and pork. They are famous as sailors and boat-builders. The Samoan language is soft and liquid in pronunciation, and has been called " the Italian of the Pacific." It is difficult to learn thoroughly, owing to its many inflexions and accents, and its being largely a language of idioms. (See also POLYNESIA.) Administration and Trade. — The German islands form a crown colony. There is an imperial governor, having under him a native high chief assisted by a native council ; and there are both German and native judges and magistrates. The United States, on assuming sovereignty over Tutuila and the islands E. of it in 1900, with the written consent of the native chiefs, appointed a naval governor. Cultivation has been extended under European and American rule, and in 1904 the exports from the German islands had reached a value of £83,750, and those from the American islands of £4200. Copra and cocoa beans are_the chief articles of export. History. — It is generally considered that the Manua group was sighted by the Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen in 1722, and named by him the Baaumann islands after the captain of one of his ships. Louis de Bougainville obtained a fuller acquaintance with the archipelago in 1768, and called them the Navigators' Islands (lies des Navigateurs). This name is still used. La Perouse was among the islands in 1787, and on Tutuila lost some of his crew in a conflict with some natives of Upolu visiting the island. Subsequent explorers were Captain Edwards of the " Pandora " in 1791, and Otto von Kotzebuf in 1824. In 1830 the respected missionary John Williams "paid his first visit to Samoa. Surveys of the archipelago were made by the American explorer Charles Wilkes. The islands, especially Upolu, now began to attract American and European (mostly German) capitalists, and the Hamburg firm of J. C. Godeffroy & Son developed the trade of the island. Meanwhile a series of petty n6 SAMOS civil wars greatly interfered with the prosperity of the native population, who grouped themselves into two opposing political parties. Americans and Europeans began to discuss the question of annexation, recognizing the importance of the geographical position of the islands. In 1877 the American consul hoisted his country's flag, but the action was repudiated by his govern- ment, which, however, in 1878 obtained Pago Pago as a coaling station and made a trading treaty with the natives. In 1879 Germany obtained the harbour of Saluafata. Great Britain followed suit, but under a political arrangement between the powers no single power was to appropriate the islands. But in 1887 and 1888 civil war prevailed on the question of the succession to the native kingship, the Germans supporting Tamasese, and the British and American residents supporting Malietoa. After the latter had been deported by the Germans, the British and American support was transferred to his successor, Mataafa. In the course of the fighting which ensued some fifty German sailors and marines were killed or wounded by the adherents of Mataafa. A conference between the three powers was thereupon held at Berlin, and a treaty was executed by those powers and by Samoa, on thei4thof June 1889, by virtueof which the independence and autonomy of the islands were guaranteed, Malietoa was restored as king, and the three powers constituted themselves practically a protectorate over Samoa, and provided a chief justice and a president of the municipality of Apia, to be appointed by them, to aid in carrying out the provisions of the treaty. The government was administered under this treaty, but with considerable friction, until the end of 1898, when, upon the death of Malietoa, two rival candidates for the throne again appeared, and the chief justice selected by the three powers decided against the claims of Mataafa, and in favour of a boy, Malietoa Tanu, a relative of the deceased Malietoa. Civil war immediately ensued, in which several American and British officers and sailors were killed by the natives, the Germans upholding the claims of Mataafa, and the British and Americans supporting the rival candidate. The three powers thereupon sent a commission to Samoa to investigate and adjust the difficulties. The situation, however, was found to be so com- plicated and embarrassing that, early in 1900, the so-called Berlin treaty was abrogated, Great Britain withdrew her claims to any portion of the islands and received compensation from Germany by concessions in other parts of the world, and the United States withdrew from all the islands W. of Tutuila. In 1902 the king of Sweden, as arbitrator under a convention signed at Washington in 1899, decided that Great Britain and the United States were liable for injuries due to action taken by their representatives during the military operations of 1899. See Robert Louis Stevenson, A Footnote to History (London, 1892), and Vailima Letters (London, 1895); G. Turner, Samoa a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before (London, 1884); W. B. Churchward, My Consulate in Samoa (London, 1887) ; I. B. Stair, Old Samoa (London, 1897); Mary S. Boyd, Our Stolen Summer (London, 1900); L. P. Churchill, Samoa 'Uma (London, 1902); Journal des museums Godeffroy (Hamburg, 1871-1874); G. Kurze, Samoa, das Land, die Leute und die Mission (Berlin, 1899); O. Ehlers, Samoa, die Perle der Sudsee (Berlin, 1900); F. Reinccke, Samoa (Berlin, 1901); A. Kramer, Die Samoa Inseln (Stuttgart, 1902 seq.); parliamentary papers, Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Samoa (London, 1899, &c.), and 1902 (Samoa, Cd. 1083) for the arbitration of the king of Sweden. SAMOS, one of the principal and most fertile of the islands in the Aegean Sea that closely adjoin the mainland of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by a strait of only about a mile in width. It is about 27 m. in length, by about 14 in its greatest breadth, and is occupied throughout the greater part of its extent by a range of mountains, of which the highest summit, near its western extremity, called Mount Kerkis, is 4725 ft. high. This range is in fact a continuation of that of Mount Mycale on the mainland, of which the promontory of Trogilium, immediately opposite to the city of Samos, formed the extreme point. Samos is tributary to Turkey in the sum of £2700 annually, but other- wise is practically an independent principality, governed by a prince of Greek nationality nominated by the Porte. As chief of the executive power the prince is assisted by a senate of four members, chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by the four districts of the island — Vathy, Chora, Marathocumbo and Carlovasi. The legislative power belongs to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the metropolitan. The seat of the government is Vathy (6000). There is a telephone service. The island is remarkably fertile, and a great portion of it is covered with vineyards, the wine from the Vathy grapes enjoying a specially high reputation. There are three ports: Vathy, Tegani and Carlovasi. The population in 1900 was about 54,830, not comprising 15,000 natives of Samos inhabiting the adjoining coasts. The predominant religion is the Orthodox Greek, the metropolitan district including Samos and Icaria. In 1900 there were 634 foreigners on the island (523 Hellenes, 13 Germans, 29 French, 28 Austrians and 24 of other nationalities). History. — Concerning the earliest history of Samos literary tradi- tion is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations it received an Ionian population which traced its origin to Epidaurus in Argolis. By the 7th century B.C. it had become one of the leading commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians seems largely due to the island's position near the enc! of the Maeander and Cayster trade-routes, which facilitated the importation of tex- tiles from inner Asia Minor. But the Samians also developed an extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with the Black Sea and with Egypt, and were credited with having been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. Their commerce brought them into close relations with Cyrene, and prob- ably also with Corinth and Chalcis, but made them bitter rivals of their neighbours of Miletus. The feud between these two states broke out into open strife during the Lelantine War (7th century B.C.), with which we may connect a Samian innovation in Greek naval warfare, the use of the trireme. The result of this conflict was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in eastern waters for the time being; but in the 6th century the insular position of Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic kings to which Miletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 B.C., when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrant Polycrates (q.v.), Samos reached the height of its prosperity. Its navy not only protected it from invasion, but ruled supreme in Aegean waters. The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors, metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute (see below). After Polycrates' death Samos suffered a severe blow when the Persians conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had regained much of its power when in 499 it joined the general revolt of the lonians against Persia; but owing to its long-standing jealousy of Miletus it rendered indifferent service; and at the decisive battle of Lade (494) part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty of downright treachery. In 479 the Samians led the revolt against Persia. }n the Delian League they held a position of special privilege and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440, when a dispute with Miletus, which the Athenians had decided against them, induced them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships they held their own for some time against a large Athenian fleet led by Pericles himself, but after a protracted siege were forced to capitulate and degraded to the rank of tributary state. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens; it served as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians, and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during the revolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 B.C.), and in the last stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This friendly attitude towards Athens was the result of a series of political revolutions which ended in the establishment of a democracy. After the downfall of Athens Samos was besieged by Lysander and again placed under an oligarchy. In 394 the withdrawal of the Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and re- establish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387) it fell again under Persian dominion. It was recovered by the Athenians in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body of military settlers. After the Samian War (322), when Athens was deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be followed. For some time (about 275-270 B.C.) it served as a base.for the Egyptian fleet, at other periods it recognized the overlordship of Syria; in 189 B.C. it was transferred by the Romans to the kings of Pergamum. Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia, it sided with Aristonicus (132) and Mithradates (88) against its overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only temporarily recovered between the reigns of Augustus and Vespasian. Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing, and was able to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the title " first city of Ionia " ; it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manu- facture of pottery (see below). Under Byzantine rule Samos became the head of the Aegean theme (military district). After the I3th century it passed through much the same changes of government as Chios (q.v.), and, like the latter island, became the property of the Genoese firm of Giustiniani (1346-1566). At the time of theTurkish conquest it was severely depopulated, and had to be provided with new settlers, partly Albanians. SAMOSATA— SAMOTHRACE 117 During the Greek War of Independence Samos bore a conspicuous part, and it was in the strait between the island and Mount Mycale that Canarisset fire to and blew up a Turkish frigate, in the presence of the army that had been assembled for the invasion of the island, a success that led to the abandonment of the enterprise, and Samos held its own to the very end of the war. On the conclusion of peace the island was indeed again handed over to the Turks, but since 1835 has held an exceptionally advantageous position, being in fact self -governed, though tributary to the Turkish empire, and ruled by a Greek governor nominated by the Porte, who bears the title of " Prince of Samos," but is supported and controlled by a Greek council and assembly. The prosperity of the island bears witness to the wisdom of this arrangement. Its principal article of export is its wine, which was celebrated in ancient times, and still enjoys a high reputation in the Levant. It exports also silk, oil, raisins and other dried fruits. The ancient capital, which bore the name of the island, was sittlated on the S. coast at the modern Tigani, directly opposite to the promontory of Mycale, the town itself adjoining the sea and having a large artificial port, the remains of which are still visible, as are the ancient walls that surrounded the summit of a hill which rises immediately above it, and now bears the name of Astypalaea. This formed the acropolis of the ancient city, which in its flourishing times covered the slopes of Mount Ampelus down to the shore. The aqueduct cut through the hill by Polycrates may still be seen. From this city a road led direct to the far famed temple of Hera, which was situated close to the shore, where its site is still marked by a single column, but even that bereft of its capital. This frag- ment, which has given to the neighbouring headland the name of Capo Colonna, is all that remains standing of the temple that was extolled by Herodotus as the largest he had ever seen, and which vied in splendour as well as in celebrity with that of Diana at Ephesus. Though so little of the temple remains, the plan of it has been ascertained, and its dimensions found fully to verify the assertion of Herodotus, as compared with all other Greek temples existing in his time, though it was afterwards surpassed by the later temple at Ephesus. The modern capital of the island was, until recently, at a place called Khora, about 2 m. from the sea and from the site of the ancient city; but since the change in the political condition of Samos the capital has been transferred to Vathy, situated at the head of a deep bay on the N. coast, which has become the residence of the prince and the seat of government. Here a new town has grown up, well built and paved, with a convenient harbour. Samos was celebrated in ancient times as the birth-place of Pytha- goras. His name and figure are found on coins of the city of imperial date. It was also conspicuous in the history of art, having produced in early times a school of sculptors, commencing with Rhoecus and Theodorus, who are said to have invented the art of casting statues in bronze. Rhoecus was also the architect of the temple of Hera. The vases of Samos are among the most characteristic products of Ionian pottery in the 6th century. The name Samian ware, often given to a kind of red pottery found wherever there are Roman settlements, has no scientific value. It is derived from a passage in Pliny, N.H. xxxv. 160 sqq. Another famous Samian sculptor was Pythagoras, who migrated to Rhegium. See Herodotus, especially book iii. ; Thucydides, especially books i. and viii. ; Xenophon, Hellenica, books i. ii. ; Strabo xiy. pp. 636-639; L. E. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 81; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 515-518; Panofka, Res Samiorum (Berlin, 1822); Curtius, Urkunden zur Geschichte von Samos (Wesel, 1873); H. F. Tozer, Islands of the Aegean (London, 1890); J. Boshlan, Aus ionischen und italischen Nekropolen. (E. H. B.; M. O. B. C.; E. GR.) SAMOSATA (Sa.ijao-a.ra., -aruv, Ptol. v. 15 § n; Strabo xvi. 749) , called in Arabic literature Sumeisat,1 is now represented by the village of Samsat, occupying a corner of the ancient site. On a broad plain 1500 ft. above sea-level, Samosata practically marks the place where the mountain course of the Euphrates ends (see MESOPOTAMIA). When the water is high enough it is possible to descend in a kelek in one day to Birejik. The rocky banks contain many ancient cave-dwellings. The stele found there and published by Humann and Puchstein (Reisen in Kleinasien u. Nord-Syrien, Atlas, plate xlix. 1-3) shows that it was at an early time a Hittite centre, probably marking an important route across the Euphrates: whether or not it was the place where later the Persian " royal road " crossed the Euphrates, in Strabo's time it was connected by a bridge with a Seleucia on the Mesopotamian side, and it is now 'connected by road with Severek and Diarbekr and with Rakka, connecting further, through Edessa and Harran, with other eastward routes. The Hittite sculptured object referred to above •Not 'to be confused, as Yaqut remarks, with Shamsha^, the classical Arsamosata (Ptol. v. 13). shows influences of an Assyrian type (P. Jensen, Hittiler u. Armenier, 1898, 13) ; but no cuneiform text referring to Samosata by name seems yet to have been published. Kummukh, however, the district to which it belonged, was overrun by early Assyrian kings. In consequence of revolt it was made an Assyrian province in 708 B.C. When the Assyrian empire passed through the hands of Babylon and Persia into those of the successors of Alexander, Samosata was the capital of Kummukh, called in Greek Commagene. How soon it became a Greek city we do not know. Although its ruler Ptolemy renounced allegiance to Antiochus IV. the dynasty of Iranian origin which ruled at Samosata, described by Strabo (I.e.) as a fortified city in a very fertile if not extensive district, allied itself with the Seleucids, and bore the dynastic name of Antiochus. There, not long after the little kingdom was in A.D. 72 made a province by the Romans, and its capital received the additional name of Flavia (Suet. Vesp. 8; Eutrop. 8. 19), the celebrated Greek writer Lucian the Satirist was born in the 2nd century (see LUCIAN), and more than a century later another Lucian, known as the Martyr, and Paul called " of Samosata." The remains of a fine aqueduct that once brought water from the Kiakhta Chai, which begins some 6 m. above the town, are probably of the 3rd century A.D. (Geog. Journ. viii. 323). Under Constantine Samosata gave place as capital of Euphratensis to Hierapolis (Malal. Chron. xiii. p. 317). It was at Samosata that Julian had ships made in his expedition against Sapor, and it was a natural crossing-place in the struggle between Heraclius and Chosroes in the 7th century. Mas'udi in the loth century says it was known also as Kal'at at-Tln (" the Clay Castle "). It was one of the strong fortresses included in the county of Edessa (q.v.). In the i3th century, according to Yaqut, one of its quarters was exclusively inhabited by Armenians. It is now a Kurdish village, which in 1894 consisted of about 100 houses, three of which were Armenian (Geog. Jown. viii. 322). SAMOTHRACE (Turk. Semadrek), an island in the N. of the Aegean Sea, nearly opposite the mouth of the Hebrus, and lying N. of Imbros and N.E. of Lemnos. The island is a kaza of the Lemnos sanjak, and has a population of 3500, nearly all Greek. It is still called Samothraki, and though of small extent is, next to Mount Athos, by far the most important natural feature in this part of the Aegean, from its great elevation- — the group of mountains which occupies almost the whole island rising to the height of 5240 ft. Its conspicuous character is attested by a well-known passage in the Iliad (xiii. 12), where the poet repre- sents Poseidon as taking post on this lofty summit to survey the plain of Troy and the contest between the Greeks and the Trojans. This mountainous character and the absence of any tolerable harbour — Pliny, in enumerating the islands of the Aegean, calls it " importuosissima omnium " — prevented it from ever attaining to any political importance, but it enjoyed great celebrity from its connexion with the worship of the CABEIRI (?.».), a mysterious triad of divinities, concerning whom very little is known, but who appear, like all the similar deities venerated in different parts of Greece, to have been a remnant of a previously existing Pelasgic mythology. Herodotus ex- pressly tells us that the " orgies " which were celebrated at Samothrace were derived from the Pelasgians (ii. 51). The only occasion on which the island is mentioned in history is during the expedition of Xerxes (B.C. 480), when the Samothracians sent a contingent to the Persian fleet, one ship of which bore a conspicuous part in the battle of Salamis (Herod, viii. 90). But the island appears to have always enjoyed the advantage of autonomy, probably on account of its sacred character, and even in the time of Pliny it ranked as a free state. Such was still the reputation of its mysteries that Germanicus endeavoured to visit the island, but was driven off by adverse winds (Tac. Ann. ii. 54). After visits by travellers, including Cyriac of Ancona (1444), Richter (1822), and Kiepert (1842), Samothrace was explored in 1857 by Conze, who published an account of it, as well as the larger neighbouring islands, in 1860. The " Victory of Samothrace," set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes c. 305 B.C., was discovered in the n8 SAMOVAR— SAMPIERDARENA island in 1863, and is now in the Louvre. The ancient city, of which the ruins are called Palaeopoli, was situated on the N. side of the island close to the sea; its site is clearly marked, and considerable remains still exist of the ancient walls, which were built in massive Cyclopean style, as well as of the sanctuary of the Cabeiri, and other temples and edifices of Ptolemaic and later date. The modern village is on the hill above. A considerable sponge fishery is carried on round the coasts by traders from Smyrna. On the N. coast are much-frequented hot sulphur springs. In 1873 and 1875 excavations were carried out under the Austrian government. Conze, Reise auf den Inseln des Thrakischen Meeres (Hanover, 1860); Conze, Hauser and Niemann, Archdologische Untersuchungen auf Samothrake (Vienna, 1875 and 1880) ; H. F. Tozer, Islands of the Aegean (London, 1890). SAMOVAR (Russ. samovaru), an urn for making tea after the Russian fashion; it is usually of copper, and is kept boiling by a tube filled with live charcoal passing through the centre. The word is usually taken in Russia to mean " self-boiler " (samu, self, and barili, boil), but it is more probably an adaptation of a Tatar word sanabar, a tea-urn. SAMOYEDES, a tribe of the Ural-Altaic group, scattered in small groups over an immense area, from the Altai mountains down the basins of the Ob and Yenisei, and along the shores of the Arctic ocean from the mouth of the latter river to the White Sea. The tribe may be subdivided into three main groups: (a) The Yuraks in the coast-region from the Yenisei to the White Sea; (6) the Tavghi Samoyedes, between the Yenisei and the Khatanga; (c) the Ostiak Samoyedes, intermingled with Ostiaks, to the S. of the others, in the forest regions of Tobolsk and Yeniseisk. Their whole number may be estimated at from 20,000 to 25,000. The so-called Samoyedes inhabiting the S. of the governments of Tomsk and Yeniseisk have been much under Tatar influence and appear to be of a different stock; their sub-groups are the Kamasin Tatars, the Kaibals, the Motors, the Beltirs, the Karagasses and the Samoyedes of the middle Ob. The proper place of the Samoyedes among the Ural-Altaians is very difficult to determine. As to their present name, signifying in its present Russian spelling " self-eaters," many ingenious theories have been advanced, but that proposed by Schrenk, who derived the name " Samo-yedes " from " byroyadtsy," or " raw-eaters," leaves much to be desired. Perhaps the etymology ought to be sought in quite another direction, namely, in the likeness to Suomi. The names assumed by the Samoyedes themselves are Hazovo and Nyanyaz. The Ostiaks know them under the names of Orghoy, or Workho, both of which recall the Ugrians; the name of Hui is also in use among the Ostiaks, and that of Yaron among the Syrgenians. The language now spoken by the Samoyedes belongs to the Finno- Ugrian group, and is allied to Finnish but has a more copious system of suffixes (seeFlNNO-UGRIc). It is a sonorous speech, pleasant to the ear. No fewer than three separate dialects and a dozen sub-dialects are known in it. The conclusions deducible from their anthropological features — apart from the general difficulty of arriving at safe conclusions on this ground alone, on account of the variability of the ethnological type under various conditions of life — are also rather indefinite. The Samoyedes are recognized as having the face more flattened than undoubtedly Finnish stocks; their eyes are narrower, their com- plexion and hair darker. Zuyev describes them as like the Tunguses, with flattened nose, thick lips, little beard and black, hard hair. At first sight they may be mistaken for Ostiaks — especially on the Ob — but they are undoubtedly different. Castr6n considers them as a mixture of Ugrians with Mongolians, and Zograf as brachy- cephalic Mongolians. Quatrefages classes them, together with the Vpguls, as two families of the Ugrian sub-branch, this last, together with the Sabmes (Lapps), forming part of the Ugrian or Boreal branch of the yellow or Mongolia race. It is probable that formerly the Samoyedes occupied the Altai mountains, whence they were driven N. by Turco-Tatars. Thus, the Kaibals left the Sayan mountains and took possession of the Abakan steppe (Minusinsk region), abandoned by the Kirghizes, in the earlier years of last century, and in N.E. Russia the Zyrians are still driving the Samoyedes farther N., towards the Arctic coast. Since the researches of Schrenk it may be regarded as settled that in historical times the Samoyedes were inhabitants of the so-called Ugria in the northern Urals, while Radlov considers that the number- less graves containing remains of the Bronze Period which are scattered throughout W. Siberia, on the Altai, and on the Yenisei in the Minusinsk region, are relics of Ugro- Samoyedes. According to his views this nation, very numerous at that epoch — which preceded the Iron-Period civilization of the Turco-Tatars, — were pretty well acquainted with mining; the remains of their mines, sometimes 50 ft. deep, and of the furnaces where they melted copper, tin and gold, are veiy numerous; their weapons of a hard bronze, their pots (one of which weighs 75 Ib), and their melted and polished bronze and golden decorations testify to a high development of artistic feeling and industrial skill, strangely contrasting with the low level reached by their earthenware. They were not nomads, but husbandmen, and their irrigation canals are still to be seen. They kept horses (though in small numbers), sheep and goats, but no traces of their rearing horned cattle have yet been found. The Turkish invasion of S. Siberia, which took place in the 5th century, drove them farther N., and probably reduced most of them to slavery. The Samoyedes, who now maintain themselves by hunting and fishing on the lower Ob, partly mixed in the S. with Ostiaks, recall the condition of the inhabitants of France and Germany at the epoch of the reindeer. Clothed in skins, like the troglodytes of the Weser, they make use of the same implements in bone and stone, eat carnivorous animals — the wolf included — and cherish the same superstitions (of which those regarding the teeth of the bear are perhaps the most characteristic) as were current among the Stone- Period inhabitants of W. Europe. Their heaps of reindeer horns and skulls — memorials of religious ceremonies — are exactly similar to those dating from the similar period of civilization in N. Germany. Their huts often resemble the well-known stone huts of the Esqui- maux; their graves are rnere boxes left in the tundra. The religion is fetishism mixed with Shamanism, the shaman (tadji-bei) being a representative of the great divinity, the Num. The Yalmal peninsula, where they find great facilities for hunting, is especially venerated by the Ob Ostiak Samoyedes, and there they have one of their chief idols, Khese. They are more independent than the Ostiaks, less yielding in character, although as hospitable as their neighbours. They are said to be disappearing owing to the use of ardent spirits and the prevalence of smallpox. They still maintain the high standard of honesty mentioned by historical documents, and never will take anything left in the tundra or about the houses by their neighbours. The Yurak Samoyedes are courageous and warlike; they offered armed resistance to the Russian invaders, and it is only since the beginning of the century that they have paid tribute. The exact number of the Ostiak Samoyedes is not known ; the Tavghi Samoyedes may number about 1000, and the Yuraks, mixed with the former, are estimated at 6000 in Obdorsk (about 150 settled), 5000 in European Russia in the tundras of the Mezen, and about 350 in Yeniseisk. Of the S. Samoyedes, who are completely Tatarized, the Beltirs live by agriculture and cattle-breeding in the Abakan steppe. They profess Christianity, and speak a language closely resembling that of the Sagai Tatars. The Kaibals, or Koibals, can hardly be distin- guished from the Minusinsk Tatars, and support themselves by rear- ing cattle. Castr£n considers that three of their stems are of Ostiak origin, the remainder being Samoyedic. The Kamasins, in the Kansk district of Yeniseisk, are either herdsmen or agriculturists. They speak a language with an admixture of Tatar words, and some of their stems contain a large Tatar element. The interesting nomadic tribe of Karagasses, in the Sayan mountains, is disappear- ing; the few representatives are rapidly losing their anthropological features, their Turkish language and their distinctive dress. The Motors are now little more than a memory. One portion of the tribe emigrated to China and was there exterminated ; the remainder have disappeared among the Tuba Tatars and the Soyotes. The Samoyedes on the Ob in Tomsk may number about 7000; they have adopted the Russian manner of life, but have difficulty in carrying on agriculture, and are a poverty-stricken population with little prospect of holding their own. The works of M. A. Castr6n are still the best authority on the Samoyedes. See Grammatik der samoyedischen Sprachen (1854) ; Dictionary (1855); Ethnologische Vorlesungen tiber die altaischen Volker (1857); Versuch einer koibalischen und karagassischen Sprachlehre (1857). See also A. Middendorf, Reise in den dussersten Norden und Osten Sibiricns (1875). SAMPAN, the name of the typical light boat of far Eastern rivers and coastal waters; it is usually propelled by a single scull over the stern, and the centre and after part is covered by an awning or screen of matting. The word is said to be Chinese, son, thin, and pan, board. Others take it to be of Malay origin. SAMPIERDARENA (San Pier d' Arena, i.e. St Peter of the Sands), a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 2$ m. by rail W. of the city of that name, 16 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 37,582 (town); 43,654 (commune). It is practically a suburb of Genoa and contains a number of handsome palaces, including the Palazzo Spinola and the Palazzo Scassi, both probably built by G. Alessi. It has become a place of great industrial and commercial activity, the Ansaldo ship-building yard being the most important of its workshops. Near the SAMPLE— SAMSON 119 » neighbouring town of Cornigliano is a bridge, where Massena signed the capitulation of Genoa. SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a. doublet of " example "), a small portion of merchandise taken from the whole to serve as a specimen or evidence of the whole; hence a pattern or model. Sale by sample obviates the necessity on the part of sellers of keeping large quantities of goods on premises unsuitable for storage, and on the part of buyers of having to make a special visit to inspect the goods in bulk. The sale of goods by sample is dealt with in England by the Sale of Goods Act 1893, s. 15, which provides that a contract of sale shall be a contract for sale by sample where there is a term in the contract, express or implied, to that effect. In the case of such a contract, there must be (a) an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality; (b) an implied condition that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the sample; (c) an implied condition that the goods shall be free from any defect, rendering them unmerchantable, which would not be apparent on reasonable examination of the sample. (See also SALE OF GOODS.) SAMPLER (from O. Fr. essemplaire, with dropping of initial a, Late Lat. exemplar -tarn, from exemplum, example; it is a doublet of " examplar " or " exempler," as " sample " is of " example "), a model or pattern to be copied, particularly a small rectangular piece of embroidery worked on canvas or other material as a pattern or example of a beginner's skill in needle- work, as a means of teaching the stitches. Down to compara- tively recent times every little girl worked her " sampler," and examples of 17th-century work are still found and have become the object of the collector's search. They usually contained the alphabet, the worker's name, the date, and Bible texts, verses, mottoes, the whole surrounded with some conventional design. The earliest sampler in existence is dated 1643 and is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington (see M. B. Huish, Samplers and Tapestry Embroideries, 1900, and List of Samplers in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, Board of Educa- tion, South Kensington, 1906). SAMPSON, WILLIAM THOMAS (1840-1902), American naval commander, was born at Palmyra, New York, on the gth of February 1840, and graduated at the head of his class from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1861. In this year he was promoted to master, and in the following year was made lieutenant. He was executive officer in the " Patapsco " when she was blown up in Charleston Harbor in January 1865. He served on distant stations and (1868-1871 and 1876-1878) at the Naval Academy, and became lieutenant-commander in 1866 and commander in 1874. He was a member of the International Prime Meridian and Time Conference in 1884, and of the Board of Fortifications in 1885-1886; was superintendent of the Naval Academy from 1886 to 1890; and was promoted to captain and served as delegate at the International Maritime Conference at Washington in 1889. He was chief of the Bureau of Ordnance in 1893-1897. About 95% of the guns employed in the Spanish- American War were made under his superintendence. His influence was felt decisively in the distribution of guns and armour, and in the training of the personnel of the navy. He superintended the gunnery training and prepared a new drill-book for the fleet. In February 1898 Sampson, then a captain, was president of Board of Inquiry as to the cause of destruction of the " Maine." At the outbreak of the war with Spain he was placed in charge of the N. Atlantic squadron, and' conducted the blockade of Cuba. When it was known that Admiral Cervera, with a Spanish fleet, had left the Cape Verde Islands, Sampson withdrew a force from the blockade to cruise in the Windward Passage, and made an attack upon the forts at San Juan, Porto Rico. After his return to the coast of Cuba he conducted the blockade of Santiago, and the ships under his command destroyed the Spanish vessels when they issued from the harbor of Santiago and attempted to escape (see SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR). Sampson himself was not actually present at the battle, having started for Siboney just before it began to confer with General Shafter, commanding the land forces. He reached the scene of battle as the last Spanish vessel surrendered, and the engage- ment was fought in accordance with his instructions. He was promoted to commodorp in 1898, to rear-admiral on the 3rd of March 1899, and was made commandant of the Boston (Charlestown) Navy Yard in October of the same year. He died on the 6th of May 1902. SAMSON (cf. Heb. shemesh, "sun"), in the Bible, the antagonist of the Philistines, reckoned as one of the " judges " of Israel (Judg. xv. 20, xvi. 31); the story itself (Judg. xiii. 2-xvi. 310), however, represents him not as a judge but as a popular hero of vast strength and sarcastic humour. He is consecrated from his birth to be a Nazarite or religious devotee (ch. xiii., cf. Samuel), and it is possible that this was conceived simply as a vow of revenge, which is the meaning it would have in an Arab story (W. R. Smith). But he is inspired by no serious religious or patriotic purpose, and becomes the enemy of the Philistines only from personal motives of revenge, the one passion which is stronger in him than the love of women. The stories of his exploits are plainly taken from the mouths of the people and have all the appearance of folk-tales, not unmixed with mythical motives. Samson commenced his career by strangling a lion on his way to visit a Philistine woman. On his return he found that the carcase, like the skull of Onesilus (Herod, v. 114), was occupied by a swarm of bees; he took the honey and the incident suggested a riddle. The narrative of Samson's marriage and riddle is of peculiar interest as a record of manners; specially noteworthy is the custom of the wife remaining with her parents after marriage.1 His next exploit, an act of revenge for the faithlessness of his wife, was to catch 300 foxes and set them loose in the fields with firebrands tied to their tails. (Analogous customs, e.g. the Roman Cerealia, are referred to in G. F. Moore's Commentary, p. 341.) The Philistines retaliated by burning her and her father's household, and Samson in his turn smote them ;' hip and thigh " and slew a thousand men with the jawbone of an ass.2 The story has apparently been influenced by the existence of a rock, called by reason of its shape, " Ass's Jawbone," from which issued a fountain called En-hakkore, " the spring of the caller " (a name for the partridge). The well-known removal of the gates of Gaza to Hebron, 40 m. distant — " no journey of the Sabbath- day " (Milton, Samson Agonistes) — has been rendered still more marvellous by a later exaggeration (xvi. 2). Finally the Philis- tine Delilah (q.v.) worms out of Samson the secret of his strength, and by shaving his head3 renders him an easy captive. He is blinded and put to menial work, and as his hair grows again his invincible strength returns. At a festival of Dagon he is led out before the Philistines in the temple, and by pulling down the house upon their heads kills more at his death than in all his life-time. Points of similarity between Samson and the Babylonian Gilgamesh, the Egyptian Horus-Ra and Hercules, have been observed by many writers, and it has been inferred that the whole story of Samson is a solar myth. His name, and the proximity of Beth-shemesh (" house of the sun ") to his father's home, favour the view that mythical elements have attached themselves to what may have been originally a legendary figure of the Danites, the tribe whose subsequent fortunes 1 In Judg. xiv. i-io the narrative has been revised; originally Samson went down alone to Timnath to contract his marriage. The metrical riddle and its answer are thus translated by G. F. Moore (Sacred Books of the Old Testament : Judges) : " Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet." " If with my heifer ye did not plough, Ye had not found out my riddle, I trow." No doubt the Hebrews, like the Arabs, were fond of enigmas; see i Kings x. i, and Ency. Biblica, s.v. " Riddle." 2 The punning couplet of the original is thus rendered by G. F. Moore: " with the jawbone of an ass, I assailed my assailants " (more literally " I piled them in heaps," or perhaps " flayed them clean "). 3 For the hair as the seat of strength cf. J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough,2 iii. 390 seq. In ch. xiii. the consecration of the hair is regarded differently. 120 SAMSON— SAMUEL OF NEHARDEA are narrated in the chapters immediately following (Judg. xvii.-xviii.). On the mythological interpretations, ^ee further Ed. Stucken, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesells. (1902), iv. 54 (with references); Volter, Agypten und die Bibel (Leiden, 1909), pp. 119-132; A. Jeremias, Alte Testament im Lichte des alien Orients (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 478 sqq., and the commentaries on the Book of JUDGES (g.r.). (S. A. C.) SAMSON (1135-1211), abbot of St Edmund's, was educated in Paris and became a teacher in Norfolk, the county of his birth. In 1166 he entered the great Benedictine abbey of St Edmund's as a monk and was chosen abbot in February 1182. He was a careful and vigilant guardian of the property of the abbey, but he found time to attend royal councils and to take part in public business; also he was frequently entrusted with commissions from the pope. During the absence of Richard I. from England he acted with vigour against John and visited the king in his prison in Germany. He did some building at the abbey, where he died on the 3Oth of December 1211. Samson is famous for the encouragement which he gave to the town of Bury St Edmunds, the liberties of which he extended in spite of his own monks. His name is most familiar owing to the references to him in Carlyle's Past and Present. See the chronicle of Jocelyn of Brakeloud in vol. i. of the Memorials of Si Edmund's Abbey, edited by T. Arnold (1890); and J. R. Green, Stray Studies (1892). SAMSON, JOSEPH ISIDORE (1793-1871), French actor and playwright, was born at St Denis on the znd of July 1793, the son of a restaurant keeper. He took the first prize for comedy at the Conservatoire in 1812, married an actress with whom he toured France, and came to the Comedie Francaise in 1826. Here he remained until 1863, creating more than 250 parts. He became a professor at the Conservatoire in 1829, and under him Rachel, Rose Cheri (1824-1861), the Brohans and others were trained. He wrote several comedies, among them La Belle-Mere et le gendre (1826), and La Famille poisson (1846). Samson died in Paris on the 28th of March 1871. SAMSUN (anc. Amisus),the chief town of the Janik sanjak of the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the S. coast of the Black Sea between the deltas of the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks. Pop. about 15,000, two-thirds Christian. It is con- nected by metalled roads with Sivas and Kaisarieh, and by sea with Constantinople. It is a thriving town, and the outlet for the trade of the Sivas vilayet. Steamers lie about i m. from the shore in an open roadstead, and in winter landing is some- times impossible. Its district is one of the principal sources of Turkish tobacco, a whole variety of which is known as " Samsun." Samsun exports cereals, tobacco and wool. Both exports and imports are about stationary, the Angora railway having neutral- ized any tendency to rise. Amisus, which stood on a promontory about ij m. N.W. of Samsun, was, next to Sinope, the most flourishing of the Greek settlements on the Euxine, and under the kings of Pontus it was a rich trading town. By the ist century A.D. it had displaced Sinope as the N. port of the great trade route from Central Asia, and later it was one of the chief towns of the Comneni of Trebizond. There are still a few remains of the Greek settlement. (D. G. H.) SAMUEL, a prominent figure in Old Testament history, was born at Raman and was dedicated to the service of Yahweh at the sanctuary of Shiloh where his youth was spent with Eli (q.v.).1 Here he announced the impending fate of the priesthood and gained reputation throughout Israel as a prophet. Best known as " king-maker," two distinct accounts are preserved of his share in the institution of the monarchy. In one, the Philistines overthrow Israel at Ebenezer near Aphek, Eli's sons 1 The name Samuel (Shemu'el), on the analogy of Penuel, Reuel, seems to mean " name (i.e. manifestation) of El " (God). Other interpretations are ''posterity of God" or "his name (shemo; perhaps Yahweh's) is God." " Heard of God," based on i Sam. i. 20, is quite impossible and the interpretation of the passage is really only appropriate to Saul (" the asked one "): the two names are sometimes confused in the Septuagint (Ency. Rib. 001.4303, n. 3). 34). are slain, and the ark is captured (i Sam. iv.). After a period of oppression, Samuel suddenly reappears as a great religious leader of Israel, summons the people to return to Yahweh, and convenes a national assembly at Mizpah. The Philistines are defeated at Ebenezer (near Mizpah) through the direct inter- position of Yahweh, and Samuel rules peacefully as a theocratic judge (vii). But in his old age the elders demand a king, his sons are corrupt, a monarchy and a military leader are wanted (viii. 3, 5, 20). The request for a monarchy is a deliberate offence against Yahweh (viii. 7, cf. x. 19, xii. 12); nevertheless, an assembly is called, and the people are warned of the drawbacks of monarchical institutions (viii. 11-21; note the milder attitude inDeut. xvii. 14-20). At Mizpah, after another solemn warning, the sacred lot is taken and falls upon Saul of Benjamin, who, however, is not at first unanimously accepted (x. 17-270). About a month later (x. 276; see Revised Version, margin), Saul — with Samuel (xi. 7) — leads an army of Israel and Judah to deliver Jabesh-Gilead from the Ammonites, and is now recognized as king. Samuel in a farewell address formally abdicates his office, reviews the past history, and, after convincing the people of the responsibility they had incurred in choosing a king, promises to remain always their intercessor (xii., cf. Jer. xv. i). So, according to one view, Samuel's death marks a vital change in the fortunes of Israel (xxv. i, xxviii. 3, 6, 15). But, according to an earlier account, instead of a state of peace after the defeat of the Philistines (vii. 14) the people groan under their yoke, and the position of Israel moves Yahweh to pity. Samuel is a local seer consulted by Saul, and is bidden by Yahweh to see in the youth the future ruler. Saul is privately anointed and receives various signs as proof of his new destiny (ix. i-x. 16). Despite the straitened circumstances of Israel, an army is mustered, a sudden blow is struck at the Philistines, and, as before, super- natural assistance is at hand. The Hebrews who had fled across the Jordan (xiii. 7), or who had sought refuge in caverns (xiii. 6, xiv. n), or had joined the enemy (xiv. 21), rallied together and a decisive victory is obtained. That these two accounts are absolutely contradictory is now generally recognized by Biblical scholars, and it is to the former (and later) of them that the simple story of Samuel's youth at Shiloh will belong. Next we find that Samuel's interest on behalf of the Israelite king is transferred to David, the founder of the Judaean dynasty, and it is his part to announce the rejection of Saul and Yahweh's new decision (xiii. 76-150, xv. 10-35, xxviii. 17), to anoint the young David, and, as head of a small community of prophets, to protect him from the hostility of Saul (xvi. 1-13, xix. 18-24). All these features in the life of Samuel reflect the varying traditions regarding a figure who, like Elijah and Elisha, held an important place in N. Israelite history. That he was an Ephrathite and lived at Ramah may only be due to the incorporation of one cycle of specifically local tradition; the name of his grandfather Jeroham (or Jeraljmeel, so Septuagint) suggests a southern origin, and one may compare the relation between Saul and the Kenites (i Sam. xy. 6) or Jehu and the Rechabites (2 Kings x. 15). But, although his great victory in I Sam. vii. may imply that he was properly a secular jeader, comparable to Othniel, Gideon or Jephthah (see i Sam. xii. 1 1 , cf . Heb. xi. 32) , the idea of non-hereditary rulers over all Israel in the pre-monarchical age is a later theory (see JUDGES). However, so epoch-making an event as the institution of the monarchy naturally held a prominent place in later ideas and encouraged the growth of tradition. The Saul who became the first king of N. Israel must needs be indebted to the influence of the propnet (cf. Jehu in 2 Kings ix.). While the figure of Samuel grows in grandeur, the disastrous fate of Saul invited explanation, which is found in his previous acts of disobedience (i Sam. xv., xxviii. 16-18; cf. Ahab, 1 Kings xx. 35-43). Further, while on the one side the institution of the monarchy is subsequently regarded as hostile to the pre- eminence of Yahweh, Samuel's connexion with the history of David belongs to a relatively late stage in the history of the written tradi- tions where events are viewed from a specifically Judaean aspect. Samuel's name ultimately becomes a by-word for the inauguration and observance of religious custom (see I Chron. ix. 22, xxvi. 28, 2 Chron. xxxv. 18, Ps. xcix. 6, Ecclus. xlvi. 13 sqq.). According to the late post-exilic genealogies he was of Levitical origin (i Chron. vi. 28, 33). See further DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF; SAUL. (S. A. C.) SAMUEL OF NEHARDEA, usually called MAR SAMUEL or YARHINAI (c. i(>$-c. 257), Babylonian Rabbi, was born in Nahardea in Babylonia and died there c. 257. He is associated SAMUEL, BOOKS OF 121 with the fame of his great contemporary Rab (Abba Araka q.v.). Besides his mastery in the traditional Law, which added much to the growing reputation of the Rabbinic Academy of his native town, Samuel was famed for his scientific attainments. In particular his knowledge of astronomy was profound, and he was one of the first to compile a Calendar of the Jewish year, thus preparing the way for the fixation of the festivals by means of scientific calculations. But Samuel's fame rests on the service which he rendered in adapting the life of the Jews of the diaspora to the law of the land. " The law of the State is binding law," was the principle which Samuel enunciated, here carrying to its logical outcome the admonition of Jeremiah. When the king of Persia, Shapur, captured Mazaca-Caesarea, the Cappa- docian capital, Samuel refused to mourn for the 12,000 Jews who lost their lives in its defence. As Graetz says: " To Jeremiah and Mar Samuel Judaism owes the possibility of existence in a foreign country." See Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation), vol. ii. ch. xix. (I. A.) SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, two books of the Old Testament, which in the Jewish canon are ranked among the Former Prophets (Joshua- Kings), in contrast to the Latter Prophets r. Post- (Isaiah-Malachi). The division into two (like the two aontents. Hebrew books of Kings) follows the Septuagint and the Vulgate, whose four books of " kingdoms " correspond to the Hebrew books of Samuel and Kings. Both Samuel and Kings, like Judges, are made up of a series of extracts and abstracts from various sources, worked over from time to time by successive editors, and freely handled by copyists down to a comparatively late date, as is shown by the numerous and often important variations between the Hebrew text and the Greek version (Septuagint) . The main redaction of Judges and Kings was made under the influence of the ideas which characterize Deuteronomy, that is, after the reforms ascribed to Josiah (2 Kings xxiii.) ; but in Samuel the " Deuteronomistic " hand is much less prominent and the chronological system which runs through Judges and Kings occurs only sporadically. The book of Samuel completes the history of the " judges " of Israel, (nth century B.C.), and begins by relating the events which led to the institution of the monarchy under Saul, the part played by Samuel being especially prominent (i Sam. i.-xiv.). The interest is then transferred to David, the founder of the Judaean dynasty, and his early life is narrated with great wealth of detail. As Saul loses the divine favour, David's position advances until, after the death of Saul and the overthrow of Israel, he gains the allegiance of a disorganized people (i Sam. xv.-2 Sam. iv.), and Jerusalem becomes the centre of his empire (v.-viii.) — c. 1000 B.C. A more connected narrative is now given of the history of David (ix.-xx.) , which is separated from the account of his death and Solomon's accession (i Kings i. ii.) by an appendix of miscellaneous contents (xxi.-xxiv.). Three lines of interest are to be recognized: (a) that naturally taken by Israel (the northern kingdom) in the history of its first king, Saul; (6) the leading position of the prophets in the political and religious events; and (c) the superiority of the Judaean dynasty, a feature of paramount importance in the study of a book which has come ultimately through Judaean hands. (On the ambiguity of the name " Israel," see JEWS, § 5.) Proof of the diversity of sources is found in the varying character of the narratives (historical, romantic, &c.); in the different literary styles (annalistic, detailed and vivid, Deuteronomic) ; in the represen- tation of different standpoints and tastes; in the concluding sum- maries, I Sam. xiv. 47-51 compared with xv., 2 Sam. viii. compared with x.; in the double lists in 2 Sam. viii. 15-18, xx. 23-26, &c. The religious views are so varied that a single writer or even a single age cannot be postulated; note especially I Sam. xv. 22 seq. con- trasted with the use of teraphim in xix. 13, and the different con- ceptions of Yahweh (i Sam. xii. 21 seq., xv. 22 and xxvi. 19, &C.).1 1 It is of course necessary to note carefully whether the religious ideas have any real chronological value. Thus, I Sam. xvii. 36, 46 seq. contain ideas of Yahweh characteristic of exilic and post-exilic writings (see T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 1755), but no proof of an early date is furnished by xxvi. 196 (cf. Ruth i. 16, I Kings xx. 23, 2 Kings xvii. 26 seq.) ; or 2 Sam. xxiv. I (cf. I Kings xxii. 20, Ezek. xiv. 9;, or 2 Sam. xxi. i (note drought as the punishment for not Unsystematic additions appear to have been made from time to time on a considerable scale, and we not seldom find two accounts of the same events which not only differ in detail but are certainly of very different date. Thus, the saying " Is Saul also among the prophets?" (i Sam. x. 12) finds another explanation in xix. 18-24, where Samuel holds a new position as head of a community of prophets and the words are adapted to an incident in the history of David, who flees north (not south) and is wondrously preserved. The episode, with the interview between Saul and Samuel, and with its interesting attitude to Saul and to the prophets, was evi- dently unknown to the writer of xv. 35. Other and more profound differences relating to the rise of the monarchy (§2), the career of Saul (§ 3) and David's conquest of Jerusalem (§ 4) represent irre- concilable historical background. The first part of the book is concerned with Samuel and Saul. The introductory account (i.-iv. ia) of the birth, dedication and calling of the young prophet Samuel is a valuable 2. lastHa- picture of religious life at the sanctuary at Shiloh. tion of It is connected by the prophecy of the punishment themon- of the house of Eli (iii. 1 1 sqq.) with the defeat of the *rcby- Israelites by the Philistines at Ebenezer near Aphek, the loss of the ark (iv. 16-22), and its subsequent fortunes (v.-vii. i). A Philistine oppression of twenty years ends when Samuel, here the recognized " judge " of Israel, gains a great victory at Ebenezer near Mizpah (vii.) . But the overthrow of the Philistines is also ascribed to Saul (xiv.), there is no room for both in the history of the prophet (see vii. 14), and it is now generally recognized that two conflicting representations have been com- bined. In one (a) Samuel, after his victory, continues to rule peacefully as a theocratic judge over the Israelites, the people demand a king, and although their request is viewed as hostile to the worship of Yahweh the tribes are summoned at Mizpah and the sacred lot falls upon Saul of Benjamin (vii. viii. x. 17-27). But in the other (J) the Philistines have occupied the heart of the land, the Israelites are thoroughly disorganized, and their miserable condition moves Yahweh to send as a deliverer the otherwise unknown Saul, who is anointed by Samuel, a seer of local renown (ix. i-x. 16, xiii. xiv.). The conclusion of the former is found in Samuel's farewell address (xii.) and the entire representation of Samuel's position, Saul's rise, and the character- istic attitude towards the monarchy (viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, cf. Deut. xvii. 14-20, Judg. viii. 22 seq., Hos. viii. 4, xiii. n), separate it sharply from the relatively fragmentary narrative in (4); see further SAMUEL. The former, now predominating, account (a) is that of the Deuteronomic school, and, although a runn- ing narrative, appears on closer inspection to be based upon earlier sources of different origin. The account of Eli, Shiloh and the ark (i.-iii.) is the tiatural prelude to iv.-vii. i, where, however, we lose sight of Samuel and the prophecy. The punishment of Eli and his sons (iv.) becomes a passing interest, and the fate of the ark is by no means so central an idea as its wonder-working in the Philistine territory. Moreover, the sequel of the defeat in iv. is not stated, although other allusions to the fall of Shiloh (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6» 9> Ps- Ixxviii. 60 sqq.), and the subsequent reappearance of the priestly family at Nob (xxi. seq.) have led most scholars to the conclusion that a fuller account of the events must have been extant. A narrative of Eli and the priesthood of Shiloh has probably been used to form an introduction to Samuel's victory (vii.), and it has been supple- mented partly by the account of the early life of the future prophet and judge (note the present abrupt introduction of Eli in i. 3) and partly by narratives of the history of the ark (v. seq.). That this section was handled at a relatively late period is clear not only from the presence of the Deuteronomic prophecy in ii. 27-36 (see § 6), but also from the insertion of Hannah's psalm (ii. i-io) — the prototype of the " Magnificat " — a post- exilic passage, " probably composed in celebration of some national success" (Driver), the present suitability of which rests upon the interpretation placed on verse 5. For the more fragmentary account of Saul's rise (ix. I-x. 16, xfii. 2-70, 156-23, xiv. 1-47), see above, page 194. Chapter xi., where he leads Israel and Judah to the rescue of their kinsmen of Jabesh-Gilead, rebuilding the temple, Hag.'i. ; or for not attending the feast of Tabernacles, Zech. xiv. 16-19). 122 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF represents a situation which belongs to (a) rather than to the state of chaos represented in (6) ; it describes how the newly-elected king proved his worth (cf. x. 27, xi. 12 seq.). The compiler has used a story in which Saul is a private individual of Gibeah, whither the messengers came in the course of their mission (xi. 4 seq.). This valuable narrative is of quite distinct origin. Further, Samuel's speech includes himself among the past judges (xii. II, cf. vii.), and refers to an Ammonite invasion (v. 12). The latter finds no place in the present history, although the local story of Jephthah's de- liverance of Gilead (Judg. xi.) has been treated as the occasion of a general Ammonite oppression, which leads to an Israelite gathering, also at Mizpah (Judg. x. 7, 9, 17). For other evidence of com- positeness in this section, see A. Lods, Etudes de thkologie (Paris, 1901), pp. 259-284, and below, § 6. Saul. — Saul's reign is introduced in xiii. i where a blank has been left for his age at accession (some MSS. insert " thirty ") ; the duration of his reign is also textually uncertain. kingdom The formula is parallel to that in 2 Sam. ii. 10 seq., of Saul. v. 4 seq., and frequently in the Book of Kings, with the additional feature that the age at accession, there usually confined to the Judaean kings, is here given for the Israelite Saul and his son Ishbosheth (i.e. Ishbaal) . The summary in xiv. 47 sqq. is evidently by an admirer; it is immediately followed by a reference to the continuous Philistine warfare (v. 52, contrast vii. 13) which forms an introduction to the life of David. This summary gives a picture of Saul's ability and position which differs so markedly from the subsequent more extensive narratives of David's history that its genuineness has sometimes been questioned; nevertheless it is substantiated by the old poem quoted from the Book of Jashar in 2 Sam. i. 19-27, and a fundamental divergence in the traditions may be assumed. Similarly in 2 Sam. ii. 8-ioa, the length of Ishbaal's reign conflicts with the history of David (ii. ii and iv. i-v. 3), and the reorganization of (north) Israel with the aid of Abner does not accord with other traditions which represent David as the deliverer of (all?) Israel from the Philistine yoke (iii. 18, xix. 9). But ii. 8-ioa, in common with i Sam. xiii. i, xiv. 47-51 (cf. also the introduction in i Sam. vii. 2 and the con- clusion vii. 15-17), are of a literary character different from the detailed narratives; the redactional or annalistic style is notice- able, and they contain features characteristic of the annals which form the framework of Kings.1 In Kings the Israelite and Judaean records are kept carefully separate and the in- dependent standpoint of each is at once obvious. Here, however, much complication arises from the combination of traditions of distinct origin: independent records of Saul having been revised or supplemented by writers whose interest lay in David. Little old tradition of Saul is preserved. The disastrous over- throw of Israel in the north (xxxi.) finds its explanation in an interview with the dead Samuel (xxviii. 3-25, here a famous prophet), where the Israelite catastrophe is foreshadowed, and Saul learns that he has lost the favour of Yahweh, and that his kingdom will pass to David (w. 16-19). Allusion is made to his campaign against Amalek (mentioned in xiv. 48 apparently as an active enemy), the story of which contains another denuncia- tion and again a reference to the coming supremacy of David (xv. 28). This peculiar treatment of Saul's history by writers of the prophetical school (cf. Ahab in i Kings xx. 35-43) has been adapted to the life of David, and the Amalekite war (i Sam. xv.) is now the prelude to the anointing of the youth of Bethlehem by Samuel (xvi. i sqq.) . Yet another account of Saul's rejection is found in xiii. 8-14, even before his defeat of the Philistines, and Saul is warned of the impending change (cf. v. 13 seq. with 2 Sam. vii. 11-16). But the incident was evidently unkndWn to the author of chap, xv., and in this subordination of the history of Saul to that of David, in the reshaping of writings by specifically Judaean hands, we have a preliminary clue to the literary growth of the book. The unambiguous allusions in xiii. 13 seq., xv 26-28, and the anointing of David by Samuel in xvi. are ignored in the narratives of the relations between David and Saul, of whose first meeting two 1 Characteristic expressions of Deuteronomic writers are found in I Sam. xiv. 47 seq. (cp. Judg. ii. 14 sqq.); similarly in the (north) Israelite writer in 2 Kings xiii. 3 sqq. (see KINGS). contradictory accounts are given (contrast xvi. 21 sqq. and xvii. 55 sqq.). The independent stories of David place him in the south of Judah, an outlaw with a large following, or a vassal of the Philistines ; and his raids upon south Judaean clans are treated as attacks upon Saul's kingdom (xxvii. 10-12). But the earlier stages are extremely confused. Two very similar narratives describe Saul's pursuit of David in the Judaean desert (xxiv. xxvi.)2 The main points are Saul's confession and his recognition that David would prevail (xxvi. 21-25); the latter is more emphatic when he foresees that David will gain the kingdom of Israel and he adjures him to spare his seed (xxiv. 20-22). This last feature is prominent in xxiii. 15-18 (the prelude to xxiv.), where a passage is inserted to describe the covenant between David and Saul's son Jonathan. The account of David's flight is equally intricate. The tradition that David slew Goliath, brought his head to Jerusalem, and deposited his sword in Nob (xvii., cf. xxi. 9, xxii. 10) is incompatible with the simpler notice in 2 Sam. xxi. 19 (i Chron. xx. 5 seeks to avoid the discrepancy); and even if the name Goliath be a later addition to the story of some great exploit (A. R. S. Kennedy, Sam., pp. 122, 149), or a descriptive title (W. E. Barnes, Chron., p. 104), it is surely difficult, on historical grounds, to reconcile David's recurring fights with the Philistines with his subsequent escape from Saul to Achish of Gath (xxvii.; already anticipated in xxi. 10-15); see further § 6. Saul's jealousy, however, is in some way kindled, and there is already a hint at David's succession (xviii. 8 sqq., Septuagint omits 10 seq.). The stories of Merab (xviii. 17-19) and Michal (w. 20 sqq.) are duplicate, and a number of internal difficulties throughout are only partially removed in the shorter text of the Septuagint. In xx. David has realized Saul's hatred ; but Jonathan scarcely credits it, although in xix. 1-7 Saul had instructed his attendants to slay the youth and his son had effected a reconciliation. This is ignored also in xix. 8-10 (cf. xviii. 10 seq., xx. 31 sqq.), and again in vs. 11-17 where David is saved by Michal his wife (see xxv. 44), and in w. 18-24 (David with Samuel, see § i end). Even in xx. the urgent preparations for flight are delayed in w. 11-17, where Jonathan entreats David's kindness for his descendants (see 2 Sam. ix. I, below), and again in m. 40-42, where the second meeting with a renewal of the covenant stultifies the preceding plans.' David. — All the stories of the relations between the founders of the respective monarchies are so closely interwoven that the disentanglement of distinct series of narratives is a task of the greatest difficulty.4 They reflect in varying forms the popular interest in David and are of the of David. greatest value in illustrating current traditions, thought and styles of literature. Apart from the more detailed and con- tinuous history, there are miscellaneous passages in 2 Sam. v.-viii., with introduction (v. 1-3), and a concluding chapter rounding off his reign (viii.). A similar collection in xxi.-xxiv. severs the narratives in ix.-xx. from David's death in i Kings i.-ii. Their contents range over all periods, from the Amalekite war (viii. 12, cf. i Sam. xxx.) to David's "last words" (xxiii. i, but see i Kings i. and ii. i). In particular they narrate the capture of Jerusalem from the Jebusites (v. 6-10) and other fights in that district as far as Gezer (w. 17-25), the purchase of land from a Jebusite for the erection of an altar (xxiv.; see i Chron. xxi.-xxii. i, 2 Chron. iii. i), and the remarkable story of the pacification of the Gibeonites (xxi. 1-14). With the conflicts in v. are closely connected the exploits in xxi. 15 sqq., xxiii. 8 sqq., and the probability of some disarrangement is supported by the repetition of the list of officials in viii. 15-18 and xx. 23-26, which many scholars (after Budde) attribute to the later insertion of ix.-xx. 22. On this view, at an earlier stage the two groups v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. were contiguous — though 1 It Is difficult to decide which is the older; for xxvi. see especially M. Lohr, 5am., p. xiv.; H. Gressmann, Schrifien d. A. T., od loc"; lor xxiv. see W. W. Guth, Journ. of Bibl. Lit. (1906), pp. 114 sqq. 1 The keen interest in Jonathan is also conspicuous at the very commencement of Saul's career, where the youth (in ix. Saul himseff appears to be represented as an inexperienced youth) is the centre of the narrative (see xiii. 3, xiv. 1-14, 17, 21, 27-45), rather than the father who now achieves the task to which he was called by Yahweh. But the revision has been too complicated for any satisfactory dis- cussion of the literary stages. • On the attempts (especially of K. Budde, Richter u. Samuel, 1890, and elsewhere) to recover here the Yahwistic (or Judaean) and Elohistic (or Ephraimite) sources of the Hexateuch, see the criticisms of B. Stade, Theolog. Lit. Zeitung (1896), No. I; Steuer- ' nagel, ib. (1903), No. 17; W. Riedel, Theol. Lit. Blatt (1904), No. 3, col. 28; also H. P. Smith, Journ. Bibl. Lit., 15 (1896), pp. 1-8; and W. W. Guth, Die dltere Schicht in den Erzdhlungen iiber Saul u. David (1904) ; and " Unity of the Older Saul-David Narratives " (see note 2 above). SAMUEL, BOOKS OF 123 not necessarily in their present form or order.1 Budde's further conclusion that i Kings i. ii. 1-9, 13 sqq. were likewise wanting (Sam. p. xi.) is also valuable, since (a) 2 Sam. v.-viii. (with xxi.-xxiv.) finds its natural continuation, on the analogy of the Deuteronomic compiler's framework in Kings, in i Kings ii. 10-12, iii. 2, and (b) i Kings v. 3 seq. (also Deuteronomic) explicitly points back to the summary of the wars in 2 Sam. viii. It is commonly recognized that the compiler of 2 Sam. v.-viii. has wrongly placed after the capture of Jerusalem (v. 6 sqq.) the conflict with the Philistines (v. 17 sqq.), where the " hold" is not Zion but some place of retreat, perhaps Adullam (cf. xxiii. 14). This being so, the conflicts in xxi. 15 sqq., xxiii. 8 sqq., which are located around Gath, Lehi (so read xxiii. ii), Pas- dammim (so v. 9; see i Chron. xi. 13), Bethlehem, and the valley of Rephaim, should also precede the occupation of Jerusalem and the subsequent partition of territory among David's sons and others (e.g. xiii. 23, near Bethel). These passages combine to furnish a representation of the events leading to the capture of the capital which is distinct from and now superseded by the detailed narratives in ii. i2-iv. Here, Ishbaal is east of the Jordan, David's men are engaged in fighting Benjamin and Israel — even at Gibeon (about 6 m. N.W. of Jerusalem), the interest of the history is in David's former relations with Israel at Saul's court, and he is regarded as the future deliverer of the oppressed people. These stories are, in fact, of a stamp with the detailed narratives already noticed (§ 3)1 and they conflict with the fragmentary traditions of David's steps to Jerusalem as seriously as the popular narratives of Saul conflicted with older evidence. But already Josh. ix. 17, xv. 63; Judg. i. 21, 29, 35, xix. 10-12; 2 Sam. v. 6 (cf. xxi. 2), indicate the presence of a line of ab'en cities including Jerusalem itself, and would point to an important alien district, the existence of which obviously bears upon the trustworthiness of the group of narratives encircling Bethlehem of Judah and Gibeah of Benjamin, the traditional homes of David and Saul.2 On the other hand, this would ignore the representation of (north) Israelite extension over Judah by Joshua and Saul,3 and it may be inferred that we have to allow for absolutely different and conflicting standpoints in regard to the history of the district, and that the Judaean traditions of David once had their own independent account of the occupation of Jeru- salem and its neighbourhood. The fragments preserved in 2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. are quite distinct from ii. i2-iv.; they throw another light upon David's relations to Saul's family (xxi. 1-14); and the stories of heroic conflicts with giant-like figures of Gath, &c. (xxiii. 9 seq., 18, cf. i Chron. xi. ii, 20) find no place by the side of the more detailed records of David's sojourn under the protection of a king of Gath, one of a confeder- ation of Philistine cities (i Sam. xxvii., xxix.). It is probable that popular stories of the conquest of the earlier inhabitants have been applied to the Philistines; their general character associates them with the legends of the " sons of Anak " who enter into Judaean (perhaps originally Calebite) tradition elsewhere (Num. xiii. 22; Josh. xi. 21 seq., xv. 14; see Budde, Sam., p. 310 seq.).4 Several intricate literary problems however at 1 Cornill, Nowack, Stenning and Kennedy (see Literature, below) accept Budde's suggestion that ix.— xx. were inserted by a hand later than the first Deuteronomic editor of viii.; but the further as- sumption that this editor had deliberately omitted ix.-xx. from his edition cannot be proved, and deals with a literary stage too early for any confident opinion or even for any critical investigation of value. " Jerusalem " in i Sam. xvii. 54 is usually treated as an ana- chronism, because of its occupation by the Jebusites, and Kirjath- jearim (vii. 1,2, perhaps Kiryat el-Enab, 9 m. W. of Jerusalem) is commonly admitted to be in alien hands. But it is clear that Nob (i Sam. xxi. seq.), about 2 m. N. of the capital, on this view, was scarcely an Israelite city, yet the presence of the priests of Shiloh there is essential to the present structure of the book. 3 For Joshua, see the older portions of Josh, x., and for Saul, I Sam. xiv. 47-51 (his wars), xv. 4 (his Judaean army), xvii. 54 (Jerusalem), xxvii. 7-12 (south Judaean clans under Israelite suze- rainty) and 2 Sam. i. 12 (Septuagint). 4 For this cf. the " Anakim " of Gaza, Gath and Ashdod, &c., in Josh. xi. 21 seq., with the " Philistine " lords, ib. xiii. 3, and see PHILISTINES. once arise in connexion with the two series v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv., and ix.-xx., since, apart from their earlier literary growth as distinct units, they have undergone some revision and alteration when compilers brought them into their present form. The story of David and Bathsheba, an incident placed in the account of the Ammonite campaign, upon which it now depends (x.-xii.; with x. 15-19 cf. viii. 3-8), connects itself through the pro- phecy in xii. 10-12 with the subsequent family feuds, in particular with Absalom's rebellion (cf. xvi. 21 seq.), and again with I Kings i., where Adonijah's revolt rouses Bathsheba to persuade David to fulfil some promise of his to recognize her young son Solomon as his heir (i. 13, 17, 21, 29 seq.). The section is an admirable specimen of historiography. The whole is closely linked together for an ostensible purpose, a chronological scheme runs throughout (xiii. 23, 38, xiv. 28 and xv. 7),* and the section concludes with an account both of David's death and of Solomon's accession (see further SOLOMON). But 2 Sam. xii. 10-12 is an insertion (Wellhausen, Cornill, Kittel, &c.), even if xii. 1-150 itself be not of secondary origin (Winckler, Schwally, H. P. Smith, Nowack, Budde, Dhorme) ; and of the related passages, xv. 1 6 is a gloss (Budde), on xx. 3 see below, and the authenticity of xvi. 21-23 in its present context is not beyond doubt (see also AHITHOPHEL). Although xxi. 1-14 and ix. are of entirely distinct standpoints,6 both are presupposed in xvi. 5-14, xix. 16-23, a"d in xvi; 1-4, xix. 24-30 respectively; the gloss xxi. 7 evidently dates after the insertion of ix., while the opening words of ix. I point back, not to xxi. which is ignored, but rather to iv., from which it is now severed by the miscellaneous group of passages in v.— viii.' In view of a few recognized signs of diverse origin (contrast xiv. 27 with xviii. 18, and see Budde on xv. 24 sqq., xvii. 17), it is possible that xvi. 1-14, xix. 16-30 are also secondary. In any case the new revolt of Sheba (xx. 1-22), can hardly be the original sequel to Absalom's rebellion (Winckler, H. P. Smith, B. Luther, E. Meyer); there is no historical prelude to i Kings i. (note the opening verse, David's old age, and cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. i), and the literary introduction to the story of Sheba is to be found in the closing scene of xix., apparently at the point where David returns to the Jordan on his way to Gilgal (r. 40).* It is to be noticed that the murder of Amasa (xx. 8 sqq.) is parallel to that of Asahel (ii. 12 sqq.), and the two (now preceding the separate groups v.-viii. and xxi.-xxiv.) are closely associated in i Kings ii. 5. The miscellaneous groups, v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv., are also certainly not in their original form. The introduction in v. 1-3 is twofold (r. 3 and the incomplete v. i seq.), and the list in iii. 2-5 (note the resuming link v. 6 after v. i) is similar in character to that in v. 13-16, and has probably been removed from the context of the latter (cf. i Chron. iii. 1-8). The presence of a late hand is also proved by the psalm in xxii. (Ps. xviii.) and by David's " last words, which sever xxi. 15-22 and xxiii. 8 sqq. These in turn part two related narratives in xxi. 1-14 and xxiv., and the latter (with which note the divergent features in I Chron. xxi.) shows several signs of later origin or re- vision. Chap. vii. is to be read in the light of i Kings v. 3-5, viii. 14 sqq., all Deuteronomic passages, though not of one stamp. Con- tinuous warfare prevented the building of the temple (i Kings v. 3-5, cf. 2 Sam. viii.), and D_avid's proposal to erect a house to Yahweh seems unnecessary after vi. 17 seq.; but vii. i, 9, in_fact, presuppose ch. viii., and the main object of the narrative is to emphasize Yahweh's promise to build David's house, i.e. his dynasty, vii. is connected with i Kings viii. but an important variation (v. 16 contrast 2 Sam. vii. 6-8) illustrates the complexity of the Deutero- nomic sources. It is important to notice that, as in the account of the temple in the history of Solomon, the introduction to it in these chapters (2 Sam. vi. seq.) divides miscellaneous though closely- related material (see KINGS). On their prelude in I Sam. vi. see below, § 6. Thus, the account of David's conflicts with giant heroes and the conquest of Jerusalem and its district seems to belong to a cycle of Judaean tradition (cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28; s.Nam- Josh. xi. 21, xv. 14), which has been almost superseded tvea of by other traditions of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy Sauiand and by the more popular narratives of early relations between the Judaean David and the (north) Israelite king and 8 In xv. 7 we must read four {or forty (the vow in this verse refers to Absalom's exile some years previously). 6 On this and on the character of the detailed narratives in general, see B. Luther in E. Meyer, Israelite*, u. ihre Nachbarstamme, pp. 184-199. See, generally, the studies by W. Caspar!, Aufkommen v. Krise d. israel. Konigtums unter David (1909) and Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1909), pp. 317 sqq., 619 sqq.; and also H. Gressmann (Literature, below). 7 Chap. ix. belongs to the joint traditions of David and Saul (cf. ii. 5-iv.); v. 13, which presupposes chap, v., appears to be an addition (see H. P. Smith, Dhorme). 8 xix. 40 (all Judah and hal£ Israel) resumes v. 15 (where Israel is not mentioned). For the view that Absalom's revolt originally concerned Judah alone, see the related section in DAVID. Dhorme, it may be observed, finds in ix.-xx. another source for x. 1-14, xii. 1-150, xv. 1-6, 10, 24-26, 29, xvi. 5-14, xvii. 27-29, xix. 16-23 and xx. 1-22.. 124 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF people. The persistent emphasis upon such features as the rejection of Saul, his enmity towards David, the latter's chivalry, and his friendship for Jonathan, will partly account for the present literary intricacies; and, on general grounds, traditions of quite distinct origin (Calebite or Jerahmeelite; indigenous Judaean; North Israelite or Benjamitey are to be expected in a work now in post-exilic form.1 David's history is handled independently of Saul in i Sam. xxv.; and the narrative, now editorially connected with the context (v. i, see xxviii. 3, and ». 44, see 2 Sam. iii. 15), gives a valuable picture of his life in the south of Palestine.2 With this notice his relations with south Judaean cities in xxx. 26-31. His flight northwards to the Philistine king of Gath (xxvii.) is hardly connected with the preceding situations in xxiv. 17-22, xxv. or xxvi. 21-25, a-nd his previous slaughter of the Philistines at Keilah (xxiii. 1-15) raises historical difficulties. This is not to mention his earlier successes over the same people, which are very explicitly ignored in xxix. 5, although the famous couplet there quoted now finds its only explanation in xviii. 7 after the death of Goliath and the defeat of the Philistines. The traditions of varying relations between Judah and the Philistines attached to David (cf. xxvii. 5 seq.) are quite distinct from the popular stories of giants of Gath, and now form part of the joint history of David and Saul. The independent narratives of the latter's fate seem to represent one of those disastrous attacks upon the north which are familiar in the later history of the northern kingdom (xxviii. 4, xxix; see JEWS: History, § 12). The geographical data are confused by the stories of David (see i Sam. xxviii. 4, xxix. i, and the commentaries), and, while the " Philistines " for once march north to Jezreel to deliver their attack, David's presence is not discovered until Aphek is reached (xxix.) . His journey is the opportunity for an Amalekite raid (xxx. cf. xxvii. 8 seq.), and this new defeat of Amalek, ascribed to David, proves a more successful undertaking than that which led to the rejection of Saul (xv. 20 seq. 26-28). Similarly, Saul's disaster leaves Israel again in the hands of the " Philis- tines " (xxxi. 7, cf. xiii. 6 seq.), and it is for David to save the people of Israel out of their hands (2 Sam. iii. 18, cf. i Sam. ix. 16).' The sequel to the joint history has another version of Saul's death (2 Sam. i. 6-10, 13-16), and an Amalekite is the offender; contrast his death in i. 15 seq. with iv. 10 seq. The chapter explains the transference of the royal insignia from Israel to Judah. Here is quoted (from the " Book of Jashar ") the old poetical lament over the death of the valiant friends Saul and Jonathan, describing their successful warlike career, the wealth they brought the people, and the vivid sense of national misfortune (i. 19-27). It is utilized for the history of David, to whom its authorship is attributed. In general, it appears that those narratives wherein the histories of Saul and David are combined — very much in the favour of the latter — were originally distinct from those where (a) Saul's figure is more in accord with the old poem from the Book of Jashar, and (b) where David's victories over prehistoric giants and his war- like movements to Jerusalem pave the way for the founda- tion— from a particular Judaean standpoint — of his remarkably long dynasty. The literary problems of the books pi Samuel are those of the writing of the history of the monarchies from different points of 6 Liter* v'ew! a"d the intimate connexion of the books with aryana those that precede and follow shows that a careful cbn- blstorkal s'deration of the internal literary and historical features problem* °' tnese a|so >s necessary. The first step is the recognition of a specific Deuteronomic redaction in Joshua— Kings, an intricate process which extended into the post-exilic age.4 Certain phenomena suggest that the first compilation was made outside Judah — in Israel, whereas others represent a Judaean and anti-Israelite feeling. The close interconnexion of Judg. x.- I Sam. xii. is as crucial as that of 2 Sam. v.-l Kings ii. The (probably 'The late genealogy of Saul in I Chron. viii. 29 sqq., ix. 35 sqq., is evidence for a keen interest in the Saulidae in post-exilic times. * The chapter with the prophecy of Abigail may be of Calebite origin. 1 So also, David's wars (2 Sam. viii.) bear a certain resemblance to those of Saul ( I Sam. xiv. 47). 4 See G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. " Historical Literature," § 6 seq. " Joshua,"- §§5, II ; " Judges," § 14. Deuteronomic) framework of Israelite history in Kings can be traced in Samuel, and it is a natural assumption that it should have gone back beyond the time of Jeroboam I. While the detailed history of Israelite kings and prophets in I Kings xvii.-2 Kings x. (Ahab to Jehu) finds more developed parallels in the narratives of Saul and Samuel, the peculiar treatment of the lives of David and Solomon (Judaean kings over a united Israel) and of the division of the monarchy has complicated the present sources. Although the contents of 2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv., I Kings ii. 10-12, iii. 2, appear to have been consecutive (in some form) at an earlier stage, the con- nexion has been broken by ix.-xx., I Kings i. ii. 1-9, 13 sqq., and the further vicissitudes can scarcely be recovered ; and while there are clear signs of more than one Deuteronomic hand in the former group, the latter shows in I Kings ii. 2-4 a Deuteronomic revision, either of independent origin or in the combination of the sources in their present form. Moreover, Samuel's farewell address (i Sam. xii.) belongs to the Deuteronomic and later account of Saul's rise, and closes the period of (a) the Israelite " judges " (see Judg. ii. 6-iii. 6, an extremely composite passage), and (b) the Ammonite and Philistine oppression (ib. x. 6 sqq.).6 The former follows upon Joshua's two concluding speeches, one given by a Deuteronomic writer in xxiii., and the other incorporated by another though similar hand in xxiy. Although the pre-monarchical age is viewed as one of kinglike " judges," the chiefs are rather local heroes (so Ehud, Gideon, Jephthah), and the boisterous giant Samson (Judg. xiii.- xvi.), and the religious leaders Eli and Samuel are " judges " from other standpoints. Perplexity is caused, also, in the oldest account of Saul's rise (i Sam. ix.) by the sudden introduction of a Philistine oppression which cannot be connected with vii. 2-viii., or even with i Sam. iv.-vii. I.6 On the other hand, Judg. x. 6 sqq. refers to a Philistine oppression which has no sequel. It may be conjectured that there was an original literary connexion between the two which has been broken by the insertion of traditions relating to Samuel and Saul.7 This finds support (a) in the internal evidence for the later addition of Judg. xvii.-xxi., and of certain portions of the opening chapters of I Samuel; (b) in the absence of any con- tinuity in the intervening history ; and (c) in the material relation- ship between portions of the highly composite Judg. x. 6 sqq. and the rise of Saul. The literary processes thus involved find an analogy in the original connexion between 2 Sam. v.-viii. and xxi.-xxiv., or between Exod. xxxiii. seq. and Num. x. 29-36, xi. (see SAUL). The section I Sam. iv.-vii. I forms the prelude to Samuel's great victory and belongs to the history of Shiloh and the priesthood of Eli. But the fall of this sanctuary scarcely belongs to this remote age (nth century); it was sufficiently recent to serve as a warning to Jerusalem in the time of Jeremiah (close of 7th century). This event of supreme importance to north Israel (cf. Judg. xviii. 30 seq.) is already connected with Samuel's prophecy in iii., but the latter is strengthened by the Deuteronomic passage, ii. 27-36, which links the disaster, not with the history of Samuel, but with the rise of the Zadokite Levites of Jerusalem, and thus represents a specifically Judaean standpoint. This is analogous to the Judaean adaptation of the prophetical treatment of Saulls life, and it also reflects certain priestly rivalries (see LEVITES). With the loss of Shiloh is explained the appearance of the priests at Nob outside Jerusalem (xxi. i, xxii. 9), which is followed by their massacre, the flight of Abiathar (xxii.), and the transference of the sacred ephod to David (xxiii. 6).' Here, however, the emphasis laid upon the ephod brought by Abiathar, the survivor of the house of Eli (cf. ii. 28, xxi. 9), points away from what was once a common object of cult to the late and post- exilic restriction of its use to the Aaronite high priests (see EPHOD). Moreover, according to i Kings ii. 26, Abiathar bore the ark, and while some traditions traced its history to Shiloh, or even found it at Bethel (Judg. xx. 27 seq.), others apparently ran quite another course, associated it with southern clans ultimately settled in Judah, and supposed that Jerusalem was its first resting-place. The author of 2 Sam. vii. 6 (cf. also I Chron. xxiii. 25 sq.) can scarcely have known I Sam. i.-iii. with its temple at Shiloh, and although 2 Sam. vi. finds its present prelude in i Sam. vi. 17— vii. i, that passage actually brings the story of its fortunes to a close by relating the return of the ark from Philistine territory to the care of Abinadaband Eleazar at Kirjath-iearim (note the " Levitical " type of the names; Budde, 5am. p. 47). From Josh. ix. 17 (post-exilic source) it might indeed be argued that the district was not under Israelite jurisdiction (see Kennedy, 5am. p. 325 seq.), although to judge from the older 5 With the length of office in i Sam. iv. 1 8 (cf. vii. 15) compare the similar notices in Judg. x. 2 seq., xii. 7 sqq., xv. 20, xyi. 31, and with the length of oppression in vii. 2, cf. Judg. iii. 8, 14, iv. 3, vi. I, x. 8, xiii. I. • Nowack, p. 39; Riedel, Theolog. Lit. Blatt (1904), No. 3, col. 28. 7S. A. Cook, Critical Notes, p. 127 seq. (cf. Dhorme, Rev. Bibl., 1908, p. 436; Godbey, Amer. Journ. Theol., 1909, p. 610). 8 Although writers sought to explain Saul's disastrous end (cf. i Chron. x. 13), it is only Josephus (Ant. vi. 14, 9) who refers to the atrocity at Nob. The significance of the tradition is unknown ; some connexion with Saul's religious zeal at Gibeon has been conjectured (2 Sam. xxi. 2). That the actual murderer was an Edomite may perhaps be associated with other traditions of Edomite hostility. SANA 125 traditions of Saul it was doubtless part of his kingdom. It may be that the narrative (which presupposes some account of the fall of Shiloh) is part of an attempt to co-ordinate different traditions of the great palladium.1 Consequently, the literary structure of the Book of Samuel is throughout involved with a careful criticism of the historical tradi- tions ascribed to the 1 1 th and beginning of the loth century B.C. The perspective of the past has often been lost, earlier views have been subordinated to later ones, conflicting standpoints have been incorporated. The intricacy of the Deutero- nomic redactions still awaits solution, and the late insertion of earlier narratives (which have had their own vicissitudes) complicates the literary evidence. Greater care than usual was taken to weave into the canonical representation of history sources of diverse origin, and it is scarcely possible at present to do more than indicate some of the more important features in the composition of a book, one of the most important of all for the critical study of biblical history and theology. The Hebrew text is often corrupt but can frequently be corrected with the help of the Septuagint. The parallel portions in Chronicles also sometimes preserve better readings, but must be used with caution as they may represent other recensions or the result of rewriting and reshaping. As a whole, Chronicles presents the period from a later ecclesiastical standpoint, presupposing (in contrast to Samuel) the fully developed " Mosaic " ritual (see CHRONICLES). After tribal and priestly lists (i Chron. i.-ix.), Saul's end is suddenly introduced (x., note v. 13 seq.). David appears no less abruptly, the sequence being 2 Sam. v. 1-3, 6-10, xxiii. 8-39 (with additions, xi. 41-47, and a list of his supporters at Ziklag and Hebron). To 2 Sam. vi. 2-11 there is a " Levitical " prelude (xiii. 1-5), then follow v. 11-25, and vi. 12-19, which is embedded in novel material. Next, 2 Sam. vii. seq., x., xi. I, xii. 30 seq., xxi. 18-22, and finally xxiv. (Chron. xxi.). The last is the prelude to an account of the prepara- tion for the temple and the future sovereignty of Solomon, and ends with David's army and government (Chron. xxvii.), and his conclud- ing acts (xxviii. seq.). The compiler was not ignorant of other sources (see x. 13, xii. 19, 21, 23), and, in general, carries out, though from a later standpoint, tendencies already manifest in Samuel. The latter in fact is no less the result of editorial processes and since it is now in post-exilic form, this is the starting-point for fresh criticism. The representation of the remote past in Samuel must be viewed, there- fore, in the light of that age when, after a series of vital internal and external vicissitudes in Judah and Benjamin, Judaism established itself in opposition to rival sects and renounced the Samaritans who had inherited the traditions of their land. See further JEWS, §§ 6-8, 20-23, PALESTINE: Old Test. History, pp. 614-616. LITERATURE. — See further the commentaries of M. Lohr (1898); W. Nowack, K. Budde (1902); H. P. Smith in the International Critical Commentary (1899), with his Old Testament History, pp. 107- 155, and the small but well-annotated edition of A. R. S. Kennedy in the Century Bible (1905). All these give fuller bibliographical information, for which see also S. R. Driver, Introduction to Literature of Old Testament, and the articles by J. Stenning in Hastings's Dictionary and B. Stade in Ency. Bib. For the text, see especially J. Wellhausen's model Text-Bucher Sam. (1871); S. R. Driver, Text of Samuel (1890); K. Budde's edition in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament (1894); P. Dhorme, Limes de Samuel (1910). Of special value for the psychological character of the various narratives is H. Gressmann's Schriften d. A. T. in Auswahl, i.-iii. (Gottingen, 1909-1910). In so far as the present article takes other views of the results of literary analysis in the light of historical criticism, see S. A. Cook, American Journ. of Sent. Lang. (1900), pp. 145 sqq.; and Critical Notes on Old Testament History (1907) (passim). (S. A. C.) SANA (Sena a), a town in S. Arabia, the capital of the Turkish vilayet of Yemen. It is situated in 15° 22' N. and 44° 10' E. in a broad valley running nearly N. and S., 7250 ft. above sea-level, on the E. slope of the great meridional range, over which the road runs to Hodeda, on the Red Sea coast 130 m. distant, crossing the Karn al Wa'l pass, over 9000 ft., about 25 m. W. of the city. The mean temperature of the year is 60° F., with a summer maximum of 77°, and a regular rainfall which falls chiefly during the S.W. monsoon from June to Sep- tember. The usual cereals, fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone, wheat, barley, apples, apricots, vines, potatoes, cabbages, beans, &c., are abundant and excellent. The town consists of three parts — (i) the Medina, the old city, now the Arab quarter, on the E. containing the principal mosques, baths, &c., with the citadel, el Kasr, at its S.E. corner at the foot of Jebel Nukum on the crest of which 2000 ft. above the valley are the ruins of the old fort of el Birash, traditionally attributed to Shem the son of Noah, and the Mutawakkil, 1 This is on the usual assumption that there was only one ark in the history of Judah and Israel. formerly containing the palace and gardens of the imams, cover- ing its W. face; (2) the Bir Azab W. of the city, consisting of detached houses and gardens, chiefly occupied by the higher Turkish officials, and (3) on the extreme W. the Ka'el Yahud or Jewish quarter. The city with the Kasr and Mutawakkil is surrounded by ramparts built of clay and sun-dried brick, 25 to 30 ft. high and of great thickness. The Bir Azab and Ka'el Yahud are enclosed in a similar enceinte but of more recent construction, connected with that of the city by the Mutawakkil; the whole forms a rough figure of eight, some 25 m. long from E. to W., and f m. in breadth. The walls are pierced by several gates; the principal are the Bab esh Shu'b and the Bab el Yemen in the N. and S. faces of the city respec- tively, and the Bab es Sabah in its W. face leading into the Mutawakkil, and thence by a broad street through the Bir Azab and Ka'el Yahud to the Bab el Ka', the main entrance to the town from the Hodeda road. The city itself has narrow, paved streets, with massive, flat-roofed houses of several storeys, and many extensive groups of buildings, mosques, serais and baths. The Jami 'Masjid, or principal mosque, stands on the site of the Christian church built by Abraha ruler of Yemen during the period of Ethiopian domination, about A.D. 530. It consists of a great rectangular courtyard paved with granite, surrounded by a triple arcade, the domed roofs of which are supported by numerous columns of stone or brick; in the centre there is a model of the Ka'ba at Mecca covered with stone flags of various colours arranged chequer-wise. Among the other mosques, of which there are forty-eight in all, that of Salah ed din with its beautiful minaret is one of the finest. Of the Kasr Ghumdan and other ancient buildings, the splendours of which were sung by the poets of the early days of Islam, nothing but mutilated ruins remain; the old palace of the imams, the Mutawakkil, was destroyed during the years of anarchy preceding the Turkish occupation, and the site is now occupied by a military hospital standing in well-kept gardens. The houses consist generally of a ground floor built of dressed stone, surmounted by two or three storeys of burnt brick; as a rule the lower storey has no openings but an arched doorway; the facade of the upper storeys is pierced by long narrow window recesses, divided into three parts, the lowest of which forms a square window closed by carved wooden shutters, while the upper ones contain round or pointed windows fitted with coloured glass, or thin slabslof alabaster which admit a subdued light. The valley in which Sana lies is generally^sterile, but in places where water is brought from the hill streams on the W. fields of barley, lucerne and market gardens are to be seen, particularly at Randa, the garden suburb, 6 m. N. of the town, and in the deep gorges of the Wadi Dhahr and.W. Hadda, the terraced orchards of which are celebrated for their fine fruit-trees. The water supply of the town is derived from numerous wells, and from the Ghail Aswad, a small canal which supplies the military cantonment outside and S. of the walls, and runs through the gardens in the Mutawakkil. The population was estimated by R. Manzoni in 1887 at 20,000 Arabs, 3000 Turks and 1700 Jews, or less than 25,000 altogether; H. Burchardt in 1891 put it at 50,000; the city has, however, suffered severely from the state of unrest which has been chronic in Yemen since 1893, and more particu- larly in 1905, when it was taken by the insurgents, and held by them for three months, and the actual numbers at present do not probably exceed Manzoni's estimate. Arabic writers give many discordant and fabulous traditions about the oldest history of Sana and its connexion with the ancient kingdom of Himyar. But most agree that its oldest name was Azal, which seems to be the same word with Uzal in Gen. x. 27. A Himy- arite nation of Auzalites occurs in a Syriac writer of the 6th century. The better-informed Arab writers knew also that the later name is due to the Abyssinian conquerors of Yemen, and that it meant in their language " fortified " (Bakri, p. 606; Noldeke, Gesch. d. Pers. u. Arab. p. 187). Sana became the capital of the Abyssinian Abraha (c. 530 A.D.) who built here the famous church (Kalis), which was destroyed two centuries later by order of the caliph Mansur (Azraki, p. 91). 126 SANA'I— SAN ANTONIO AUTHORITIES. — Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia (Amsterdam, 1774); R. Manzoni, // Yemen (Rome, 1884); D. Charnay and A. Deflers, Excursions au Yemen. Tour du monde (Paris, No. 24, 1898). (R. A. W.) SANA'I, the common name of ABULMAJD MAPUD B. ADAM, the earliest among the great Sufic poets of Persia, was a native of Ghazni (in Afghanistan). He flourished in the reigns of the Ghaznevid sultans Ibrahim (1050-1099, 451-492 A.H.), his son Mas'ud (1099-1114), and his grandson Bahrain (1118-1152). Persian authorities are greatly at variance as to the dates of the poet's birth and death. At any rate, he must have been born in the beginning of the second half of the nth century and have died between 1131 and 1150 (525 and 545 A.H.). He composed chiefly qa$idas in honour of his sovereign Ibrahim and the great men of the realm, but the ridicule of a half-mad jester is said to have caused him to abandon the career of a court panegyrist and to devote his poetical abilities to higher subjects. For forty years he led a life of retirement and poverty, and, although Bahrain offered him a high position at court and his own sister in marriage, he remained faithful to his austere and solitary life. But, partly to show his gratitude to the king, partly to leave a lasting monument of his genius behind him, he began to write his great double-rhymed poem on ethics and religious life, which served as model to the masterpieces of Farid-uddin ' Attar and Jelal ud-din Rumi, the Ifadiqat ul-haqlqat, or " Garden of Truth " (also called Alkitab alfakhri), in ten cantos. This poem deals with such topics as : the unity of the Godhead, the divine word, the excellence of the prophet, reason, knowledge and faith, love, the soul, worldly occupation and inattention to higher duties, stars and spheres and their symbolic lore, friends and foes, separation from the world. One of Sana'i's earliest disciples, Mahommed b. 'All Raqqam, generally known as 'All al-Raffa, who wrote a preface to this work, assigns to its composition the date 1131 (525 A.H.), and states besides that the poet died immediately after the completion of his task. Now, Sana*! cannot possibly have died in 1131, as another of his mathnawis, the Tariq-i-tahqiq, or " Path to the Verification of Truth," was composed, according to a chronogram in its last verses, in 1134 (528 A.H.), nor even in 1140, if he really wrote, as the Atashkada says, an elegy on the death of Amir Mu'izzi; for this court-poet of Sultan Sinjar h'ved till 1147 or 1148 (542 A.H.). It seems, therefore, that Taqi Kashi is right in fixing Sana'i's death in 1150 (545 A.H.), the more so as 'Ali al-Raffa himself distinctly says in his preface that the poet breathed his last on the nth of Sha'ban, " which was a Sunday," and it is only in 1 1 50 that this day happened to be the first of the week. Sana"! left, besides the ftadlqah and the Tariq-i-tahqiq, several other §ufic mathnawis of similar purport: for instance, the Sair uTibdd ila'lma'ad, or " Man's Journey towards the Other World " (also called Kunuz-urrumuz, " The Treasures of Mysteries "); the 'Ishqndma,OT " Book of Love "; the 'Aqlnama 01 " Book of Intellect "; the Kdrndma, or " Record of Stirring Deeds," &c.; and an extensive diwan or collection of lyrical poetry. His tomb, called the " Mecca " of Ghazni, is still visited by numerous pilgrims. See Abdullatif al-'Abbasi's commentary (completed 1632 and preserved in a somewhat abridged form in several copies of the India Office Library); on the poet's life and works, Ouseley, Biogr. Notices, 184-187; Rieu's and Flugel's Catalogues, &c.; E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia (1906), ii. 317-322; H. Eth6 in W. Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii. 282-284. SAN ANTONIO, a city and the county-seat of Bexar county, Texas, U.S.A., about 80 m. S.S.W. of Austin, on the San Antonio river, at the mouth of the San Pedro. Pop. (1900) 53,321, of whom 18,880 were of foreign parentage, 9348 were foreign-born (including 3288 Mexicans and 3031 Germans) and 7538 were negroes; (1910 census), 96,614. San Antonio is the largest city of Texas. It is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the International & Great Northern, the San Antonio & Aransas Pass, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city lies at an elevation of 610-750 ft. above the sea. The San Antonio river (which has a winding course of 13 m. within the city limits) and its affluent, the San Pedro (which is 10 m. long in its course through San Antonio), divide the city into three mam portions, and these water-courses and the Acequia (7 m. long) are spanned by 17 large iron bridges and about 2500 smaller bridges and culverts. Among the public buildings are the city hall in Military Plaza, the court-house on Main Plaza, the Federal building on the N. side of Alamo Plaza, the Carnegie library and the convention hall and market house on Milam Square. The most interesting building is the historic Alamo (named from the grove of cottonwood — alamo, the Populus monilifera — in which it stands) on the E. side of the Alamo Plaza, E. of the San Antonio river; it was begun probably in 1744 and was the chapel of the Mission San Antonio de Valero (often called " the Alamo mission "); in 1883 it was bought by the state and has since been maintained as a public monument. The San Fernando Cathedral1 on Main Plaza was built in 1734, but there is very little of the original structure in the present building, which really dates from 1868-1873; the former governor's palace, built in 1749, is at No. 105 Military Plaza; at 1 28 Soledad is the Veramendi Palace, the residence of Governor Veramendi, father-in-law of Colonel James Bowie, and in this palace Colonel B. R. Milam was killed on the sth of December 1835 by a sharpshooter hidden in a cypress tree; there is a monument to Colonel Milam in Milam Square. One mile N. of the city on Government Hill is Fort Sam Houston (established in 1865), headquarters of the Department of Texas, with an army hospital (1885) and a tower 88 ft. high. There are several old missions near the city, notably the Mission La Purisima Conception de Acuna (the " First Mission "), 2 m. S. of the city, built here in 1731-1752, having formerly been in E. Texas; the Mission San Jose de Aguayo (the " Second Mission "), 4 m. S. of San Antonio, built in 1720-1731; the Mission San Juan de Capistrano (the " Third Mission "), 6 m. S. of the Main Plaza built in 1731; and San Francisco de la Espada (the " Fourth Mission," also built in 1731 and also removed here from E. Texas), which is 8 m. S. of the Main Plaza and is now used for service by the local Mexicans. The city has 21 parks and plazas. Within the city limits in its N. central part is Brackenridge Park (200 acres) along the San Antonio; i m. N.E. of the city is San Pedro Park (40 acres), the source of the San Pedro river; in Travis Park is a Confederate monument; and 3 m. S. of the city are the International Fair Grounds, where hi 1898 Colonel Theodore Roosevelt organized his " Rough Riders," and Riverside Park. The most notable of the plazas are Military, Main and Alamo. The anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto, the 2ist of April, is annually cele- brated by a " Battle of Flowers." Annually in October an International Fair is held, to which Mexico sends an exhibit of Mexican products and manufactures. The climate is mild with a mean summer temperature of 82° F. and a winter average of 54°, and this and the dry purity of the air make it a health resort; it is also the winter home of many Northerners. There is good shooting (doves, quail, wild turkey and deer) in the vicinity; there are fine golf links and there is a large ranch for breeding and training polo ponies. In the southern suburbs two artesian wells, 1800-2000 ft. deep, discharge 800,000 gallons a day of strong sulphur water (temperature io3°-io6° F.), which is used for treating rheumatism and skin diseases. Near one of these wells is the South-western (State) Hospital for the Insane (1892). The city has a good public school system, including, besides the usual departments, departments of manual training and domestic science. In 1910 there were 30 schools — 26 for whites and 4 for negroes. Among the educational institutions in San Antonio are the San Antonio Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; 1894), the West Texas Military Academy; Peacock Military School; St Mary's Hall (Roman Catholic); St Louis College; and the Academy of Our Lady of the Lake (under the Sisters of Divine Providence, who have a convent here). The city is the see of Protestant Episcopal and 1 The cathedral is the centre of the city according to the charter, which describes the city as including " six miles square, of which the sides shall be equi-distant from what is known as the cupola of the cathedral of San Fernando and three miles therefrom." SAN ANTONIO DE LOS BANOS— SANCERRE 127 Roman Catholic bishops. Among the charitable institutions are the City Hospital (1886), the Santa Rosa Infirmary (1869), maintained by Sisters of Charity, a House of Refuge (1897), a Rescue Home (1895), a home for destitute children and aged persons (1897), the St Francis Home for the Aged (1893), St John's Orphan Asylum (1878), St Joseph's Orphan Asylum (1871) and the Protestant Home for Destitute Children (1887). The principal manufactures are malt liquors, flour and grist- mill products and steam railway cars. San Antonio is the commercial centre of a great live stock and farming region. Under the charter of 1903, as amended in 1907, the municipal government consists of a city council, composed of the mayor, four aldermen, elected at large, and eight ward aldermen, all elected for a term of two years, as are the other elective officers; a city attorney, an assessor, a collector, a treasurer, an auditor and judge of the Corporation Court. Any elective officer may be removed by the vote of eight members of the council. Other officers are appointed by the mayor with the confirmation of the council. The city water supply, owned by a private corpora- tion, is obtained from artesian wells with a capacity of 40,000,000 gallons a day. The city has a sewer-farm of 530 acres which the charter forbids it to sell. San Antonio was the capital of Texas during the periods of Spanish and Mexican rule. The presidio of San Antonio de Bexar and the mission of San Antonio de Valero were founded in 1718 under the direction of Martin de Alarcon, governor of Coahuila. San Antonio was accordingly from the beginning a combination of two of the three types of Spanish settlement, the military and the ecclesiastical (see TEXAS: History). To these was added the third, the civil type, in 1731, when the villa of San Fernando was established. Several missions were established in the neighbourhood, including those already mentioned and San Xavier de Naxera (1722), a new foundation. All of these missions decreased in importance with the disappear- ance of the Indians and by the close of the period of Spanish rule (1821) had been abandoned. San Antonio was captured by the Magee-Gutierrez party in 1813, but was recovered by the Mexican royalists (see TEXAS: History). It was besieged by the Texan army under General Stephen F. Austin and Edward Burleson in 1835 and was finally taken early in December as the result of an attack led by Colonel Benjamin R. Milam. Its recapture by Santa Anna, February-March 1836, was dis- tinguished by the heroic defence of the mission (particularly the chapel of the Alamo) by Colonels William Barrett Travis, James Bowie and Davy Crockett, and 178 others against the attack of about 4000 Mexicans. After a bombardment lasting from the 23rd of February to the 6th of March, the Mexicans assaulted on the 6th, were twice beaten back, and then over- powered and slaughtered the garrison, the five survivors being subsequently bayonetted in cold blood. Three women, one a Mexican, two children and a negro servant were spared. " Remember the Alamo " became a war-cry of the Texans. The Mexicans again invaded Texas in 1842, and San Antonio was twice captured and held for short periods, first by General Vasquez and later by General Well. After 1836 there was a large influx of Anglo-Americans and Germans, and the Mexican element long ago ceased to predominate. Charters of incorpora- tion were granted in 1837, 1842, 1852, 1856, 1870 and 1903. At San Antonio in February 1861 General David E. Twiggs (1790- 1862), a veteran of the Mexican War, surrendered the Depart- ment of Texas, without resistance, to the Confederate general, Ben McCulloch; for this General Twiggs was dismissed from the United States army, and in May he became a major-general in the Confederate service. The rapid growth of San Antonio dates from 1878, when the first railway entered the city. See William Corner, San Antonio de Bexar (San Antonio, 1890); The Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association, ii. 217-226, viii. 277-352; and George P. Garrison, Texas (Boston and New York, 19°3)< 'n the " American Commonwealths Series." SAN ANTONIO DE LOS BANGS, a small town in Havana Province, Cuba, about 23 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 9125. San Antonio de los Bafios is served by the W. branch of the United Railways of Havana. It is on the banks of the Ariguanabo river, which drains a lake of the same name, and is itself one of the many " disappearing rivers " of the island; it disappears in a cave near San Antonio. The town has mineral springs and baths, and is a summer resort of the people of Havana. Though spreading over hills, the plan of the town is regular. The tobacco of the Vuelta Abajo lands immediately around the city is famous. The pueblo arose in the middle of the i8th century as a camp for convicts from Mexico. It became a villa in 1794. Early in the igth century refugees from Santo Domingo settled here and founded coffee estates that gave the place great prosperity until the expulsion of the French in 1809; subsequently the cultivation of tobacco renewed its prosperity. SANATORIUM (a modern Latinism, formed from sanare, to cure, restore to health, sanus, whole, healthy, well; often wrongly spelled sanatorium or sanitarium), an establishment where persons suffering from disease, or convalescents, may be received for medical treatment, rest cures and the like; in recent modern usage particularly used for establishments where patients suffering from phthisis may undergo the open-air treatment (see THERAPEUTICS). The mis-spellings of the word, sanitarium and sanatarium, are due to a confusion of " sanatory," i.e. giving health, from sanare, and " sanitary," pertaining to health, from sanitas, health. SANATRUCES (Sinalrttces, Pers. Sanalruk), Parthian king. In the troublous times after the death of Mithradates II. (c. 88 B.C.) he was made king by the Sacaraucae, a Mongolian tribe who had invaded Iran in 76 B.C. He was eighty years old and reigned seven years; his successor was his son Phraates III. (Lucian, Macrob. 15; Phlegon, fr. 12 ap. Phot. cod. 97; Appian, Mithr. 104; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 45). Another Sanatruces (Sana- trucius) is mentioned as an ephemeral Parthian king in A.D. 115 (Malalas, Chron. p. 270, 273). (Eo. M.) SAN BERNARDINO, a city and the county-seat of San Bernard- ino county, California, U.S.A., about 60 m. E. of Los Angeles. Pop. (1900) 6150 (873 foreign-born); (1910) 12,779. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the Southern Pacific and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways, and by an interurban electric line. The city is situated in a valley at an altitude of about 1050 ft., at the S. base of the San Bernardino mountain range and 20 m. W. of San Bernardino mountain (11,600 ft.). Among the public buildings are a Carnegie library (1903; the library was established in 1891), with 10,000 volumes in 1909, and the county court house. There are two public parks, Lugo, near the centre of the city, and Meadowbrook, on the E. outskirts. San Bernardino is one of several places (Redlands, Highland, Rialto, Colton, Bloomington, Riverside, Pomona) that lie near together in part of the citrus fruit, alfalfa and grain region of S. California. The Santa Fe railway has extensive repair and construction shops here. San Bernardino is popularly known as the " Gate City of Southern California." Five miles N. of the city, and connected with it by electric railway, at the base of a mountain on whose side is a great blaze shaped like an arrow-head, are the Arrowhead Hot Springs (196° F.), resembling the Carlsbad waters; the hotel at the Springs is heated by their waters. Other hot springs near San Bernardino are the Urbita, ij m. S., and the Harlem, 4 m. N.E. About 1822 Spanish missionaries settled about 5 m. from the site of the present city and called their mission San Bernardino (from St Bernardin of Siena). In 1851 the Mormons established here a colony, which was abandoned in 1857. The county was organized in 1853 with the county-seat at San Bernardino, which was incorporated as a town in 1854. It was deprived of its charter in 1861, but re- ceived a new one in 1864. The Southern Pacific in 1876 gave the city connexion with the ocean, and the Santa F6 in 1885 connected it with the East. Under a state enactment in 1905 San Bernardino adopted a new charter which provides for the " recall " by petition, the initiative and the referendum. SANCERRE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Cher, 34 m. N.E. of Bourges by rail. Pop. (r9o6) 2232. Sancerre, which gives its name to the small district of Sancerrois, is situated on an isolated vine-clad hill 128 SANCHEZ— SANCTION (rooo ft.) about i m. from the left bank of the Loire. It has a modern chateau, in the grounds of which there is a cylindrica keep of the i5th century, the only relic of an ancient stronghold From 1037 to 1152 the title of count of Sancerre was held by thi counts of Champagne; from the latter year till 1640 it had it; own counts, who were descended from Theobald IV. of Cham pagne, but in 1226 came under the suzerainty of the crown. In 1640 it became the property of Henri de Conde, whose descendant possessed it till the Revolution. During the religious wars it was a stronghold of Protestantism, and in 1573 was besieged by the Catholics, who did not succeed in capturing it till after nearly eight months of siege. The town has a subprefecture, a tribuna of first instance and a communal college. Good wine is grown in the vicinity. SANCHEZ. Three persons of this name enjoyed considerable literary celebrity: (i) FRANCISCO SANCHEZ (Sanctius) (1523- 1601), successively professor of Greek and of rhetoric at Sala- manca, whose Minerva, first printed at that town in 1587, was long the standard work on Latin grammar. (2) FRANCISCO SANCHEZ, a Portuguese physician of Jewish parentage, born at Tuy (in the diocese of Braga) in 1550, took a degree in medicine at Montpellier in 1574, became professor of philosophy and physic at Toulouse, where he died in 1623; his ingenious treatise (Quod nihil scitur, 1581) marks the high-water of reaction against the dogmatism of his time; he is said to have been distantly related to Montaigne. (3) TOMAS SANCHEZ of Cordova (1551-1610), Jesuit and casuist, whose treatise De matrimonio (Genoa, 1592) is more notorious than celebrated. SANCHI, a small village in India, at which there is now a railway station on the Bombay-Baroda line. It is famous as the site of what are almost certainly the oldest buildings in India now standing. They are Buddhist topes (Pali, thupa; Sanskrit, stupa), that is, memorial mounds, standing on the level top of a small sandstone hill about 300 ft. high on the left bank of the river Betwa. The number of topes on this and the adjoining hills is considerable. On the Sanchi hill itself are only ten, but one of these is by far the most important and imposing of all. All these topes were opened and examined by General Alexander Cunningham and Lieut. -Colonel Maisey in 1851; and the great tope has been described and illustrated by them and by James Fergusson. This is a solid dome of stone, about 103 ft. in diameter, and now about 42 ft. high. It must formerly have been much higher, the top of the tope having originally formed a terrace, 34 ft. in diameter, on which stood lofty columns. Cunningham estimates the original height of the building as about 100 ft. Round the base is a flagged pathway surrounded by a stone railing and entered at the four points of the compass by gateways some 18 ft. high. Both gateways and railing are elaborately covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The latter1 give the names of the donors of particular portions of the architectural ornamentation, and most of them are written in the characters used before and after the time of Asoka in the middle of the 3rd century B.C. The monuments are Buddhist, the bas-reliefs illustrate passages in the Buddhist writings, and the inscriptions make use of Buddhist technical terms. Some of the smaller topes give us names of men who lived in the Buddha's time, and others give names mentioned among the missionaries sent out in the time of Asoka. It is not possible from the available data to fix the exact date of any of these topes, but it may be stated that the smaller topes are probably of different dates both before and after Asoka, and that it is very possible that the largest was one of three which we are told was erected by Asoka himself. The monuments at Sanchi are now under the charge of the archaeological department; they are being well cared for, and valuable photographs have been taken of the bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The drawings in Fergusson 's work entitled Tree and Serpent Worship are very unsatisfactory, and his suggestion that the carvings illustrate tree and serpent worship is quite erroneous. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Alex. Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes (London,i854) ; James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship (London, 1873) ; General F. C. Maisey, Sanchi and its Remains (London, 1892) ; Rhys Davids, ffuddhtst India (London, 1902). (T. W. R. D.) SANCHUNIATHON (Gr. form of Phoenician Sakkun-yatkon, " the god Sakkun has given "), an ancient Phoenician sage] who belongs more to legend than to history. He is said to have nourished " even before the Trojan times," " when Semiramis was queen of the Assyrians." Philo Herennius of Byblus claimed to have translated his mythological writings from the Phoenician originals. According to Philo, Sanchuniathon derived the sacred lore from the mystic inscriptions on the 'A^oweTj (probably hammanim, " sun pillars," cf. Is. xxvii. 9, &c.) which stood in the Phoenician temples. That any writings of Sanchuniathon ever existed it is impossible to say. Philo drew his traditions from various sources, adapted them to suit his purpose, and conjured with a venerable name to gain credit for his narrative. Porphyry, says that Sanchuniathon (here called a native of Byblus) wrote a history of the Jews, based on information derived from Hierombal (i.e. Jeruba'al), a priest of the god Jevo (i.e. Yahveh, Jehovah), and dedicated it to Abelbal or Abibal, king of Berytus. The story is probably a pure inven- tion; the reference to Berytus shows that it is late. See Eusebius, Praep. Ev. i. 9 (Miiller, Fragm. hist. Graec. iii. pp. SAN CRIST6BAL (formerly called SAN CRISTOBAL DE Los LLANOS, CIUDAD DE LAS CASAS, and CIUDAD REAL), a town of Mexico, in the state of Chiapas, on a level tableland about 6700 ft. above sea-level and 48 m. E.N.E. of Tuxtla Gutierrez. Pop. (1892 estimate) 16,000. The surrounding country is fertile and healthful and is populated chiefly with Indians. The town possesses a cathedral, hospital and other public institutions. San Cristobal was founded in 1528 on the site of an Indian village, and afterwards was famous as the residence of Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapas. It was the capital of Chiapas until near the end of the i gth century. There are traces of an early Indian civilization in the vicinity. SANCROFT, WILLIAM (1616-1693), archbishop of Canterbury, was lorn at Fressingfield in Suffolk 3oth January 1616, and entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in July 1634. He became M.A. in 1641 and fellow in 1642, but was ejected in 1649 for refusing to accept the " Engagement." He then remained abroad till the Restoration, after which he was chosen one of the univer- sity preachers, and in 1663 was nominated to the deanery of York. In 1664 he was installed dean of St Paul's. In this situation he set himself to repair the cathedral, till the fire of London in 1666 necessitated the rebuilding of it, towards which ic gave £1400. He also rebuilt the deanery, and improved its revenue. In 1668 he was admitted archdeacon of Canterbury upon the king's presentation, but he resigned the post in 1670. In 1677, being now prolocutor of the Convocation, he was unexpectedly advanced to the archbishopric of Canterbury. He attended Charles II. upon his deathbed, and " made to him a very weighty exhortation, in which he used a good degree of 'reedom." He wrote with his own hand the petition presented n 1687 against the reading of the Declaration of Indulgence, which was signed by himself and six of his suffragans. For his they were all committed to the Tower, but were acquitted. Jpon the withdrawal of James II. he concurred with the Lords n a declaration to the prince of Orange for a free parliament, and due indulgence to the Protestant dissenters. But, when that )rince and his consort were declared king and queen, he refused o take the oath to them, and was accordingly suspended and leprived. From 5th August 1691 till his death on the 24th of November 1693, he lived a very retired life in his native place, le was buried in the churchyard of Fressingfield, where there s a Latin epitaph to his memory. Sancroft was a patron of Jenry Wharton (1664-1695), the divine and church historian, o whom on his deathbed he entrusted his manuscripts and the emains of Archbishop Laud (published in 1695). He published F ur praedeslinalus (1651), Modern Politics (1652), nd Three Sermons (1694). Nineteen Familiar Letters to Mr North afterwards Sir Henry North) appeared in 1757. SANCTION (Lat. sanctio, from sancire, to decree or ordain), n jurisprudence, the means provided for the enforcement of a aw. According to T. E. Holland (Elements of Jurisprudence, SANCTIS, F. DE— SANCTUARY 129 1906, p. 85), " the real meaning of all law is that, unless acts conform to the course prescribed by it, the state will not only ignore and render no aid to them, but will also, either of its own accord or if called upon, intervene to cancel their effects. This intervention of the state is what is called the ' sanction ' of law. " So Justinian (Inst. ii. i, 10), " Legum eas partes quibus poenas constituimus adversus eos qui contra leges fecerint, sanctiones vocamus." In general use, the word signifies approval or confirmation. SANCTIS, FRANCESCO DE (1817-1883), Italian publicist, was born at Morra Irpino, and educated at the institute of the Marchese Basilio Puoti. Becoming a teacher in a private school of his own, he made a name as a profound student of literature; and after the troubles of the '48, when he held office under the revolutionary government and was imprisoned for three years at Naples, his reputation as a lecturer on Dante at Turin brought him the appointment of professor at Zurich in 1856. He returned to Naples as minister of public instruction in 1860, and filled the same post under the Italian monarchy in 1861, 1878 and 1879, having in 1861 become a, deputy in the Italian chamber. In 1871 he became professor at Naples Uni- versity. As a literary critic, De Sanctis took a very high place, notably with his Storia delta letteratura italiana (2nd ed., 1873) and with his critical studies, published in several volumes, some of them since his death at Naples in 1883. SANCTI SPIRITUS, an old Cuban city in Santa Clara province, situated on a sandy plain in an angle of the Yayabo river, which winds through the city. Pop. (1907) 17,440. It is connected by railway with Zaza del Medio, on the main railway line of the island, and with its port, Tunas de Zaza, 30 m. (by rail) to the S. The hill called Pan de Azucar (Sugar-loaf) is S.W. of the city. One church is said to be as old as the city, and others date from 1699, 1716, 1717, &c. The surrounding country is devoted principally to grazing. Sancti Spiritus was one of the seven cities founded by Diego Valasquez. Its settlement was ordered in 1514 and accomplished in 1516, and it is the fifth town of the island in age. The present city is about two leagues from the original site (Pueblo Viejo). In 1518, as a result of the war of the Comunidades of Castille, a mimic war broke out in Sancti Spiritus among its two score villagers. The place was sacked by French and English corsairs in 1719. Illicit trade with Jamaica was the basis of local prosperity in the i8th century. SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place) , a sacred or consecrated place, particularly one affording refuge, protection or right of asylum; also applied to the privilege itself, the right of safe refuge. In Egyptian, Greek or Roman temples it was applied to the cello, in which stood the statue of the god, and the Latin word for altar, ara, was used for protec- tion as well. In Roman Catholic usage sanctuary is sometimes applied to the whole church, as a consecrated building, but is generally limited to the choir. The idea that such places afforded refuge to criminals or refugees is founded upon the primitive and universal belief in the contagion of holiness. Hence it was sacrilege to remove the man who had gained the holy precincts; he was henceforth invested with a part of the sacredness of the place, and was inviolable so long as he remained there. Some temples had peculiar privileges in this regard. That of Diana at Ephesus extended its inviolability for a perimeter of two stadia, until its right of sanctuary was refused by the Romans. Not all Greek and Roman temples, however, had the right in an equal degree. But where it existed, the action of the Roman civil law was suspended, and in imperial times the statues and pictures of the emperors were a protection against pursuit. Tacitus says that the ancient Germans held woods, even lakes and fountains, sacred; and the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded several woods as holy and to have made sanctuaries of them, one of these being at Leek in Staffordshire. The use of Christian churches as sanctuaries was not based upon the Hebrew cities of refuge, as is sometimes stated. It is part of the general religious fact of the inviolability attaching to things sacred. The Roman law did not recognize the use of xxrv. 5 Christian sanctuaries until toward the end of the 4th century, but the growing recognition of the office of bishop as intercessor helped much to develop it. By 392 it had been abused to such an extent that Theodosius the Great was obliged to limit its application, refusing it to the publici debilores. Further evidence of its progress is given by the provision in 397 forbidding the reception of refugee Jews pretending conversion in order to escape the payment of debts or just punishment. In 398, according to contemporary historians, the right of sanctuary was completely abolished, though the law as we have it is not so sweeping. But next year the right was finally and definitely recognized, and in 419 the privilege was extended in the western empire to fifty paces from the church door. In 431, by an edict of Theodosius and Valentinian it was extended to include the church court-yard and whatever stood therein, in order to provide some other place than the church for the fugitives to eat and sleep. They were to leave all arms outside, and if they refused to give them up they could be seized in the church. Capital punishment was to be meted out to all who violated the right of sanctuary. Justinian's code repeats the regulation of sanctuary by Leo I. in 466, but Justinian himself in a Novel of the year 535 limited the privilege to those not guilty of the grosser crimes. In the new Germanic kingdoms, while violent molestation of the right of sanctuary was forbidden, the fugitive was given up after an oath had been taken not to put him to death (Lex. Rom. Burgund. tit. 2, § 5; Lex. Visigoth vi. tit. 5, c. 1 6). This legislation was copied by the church at the council of Orleans in 511; the penalty of penance was added, and the whole decree backed by the threat of excommunication. Thus it passed into Gratian's Decretum. It also formed the basis of legislation by the Prankish king Clotaire (51 1-588) , who, however, assigned no penalty for its violation. Historians like Gregory of Tours have many tales to tell showing how frequently it was violated. The Carolingians denied the right of sanctuary to criminals already condemned to death. The earliest extant mention of the right of sanctuary in England is contained in the code of laws issued by the Anglo- Saxon king -Sthelberht in A.D. 600. By these he who infringed the church's privilege was to pay twice the fine attaching to an ordinary breach of the peace. At Beverley and Hexham i m. in every direction was sacred territory. The boundaries of the church frith were marked in most cases by stone crosses erected on the highroads leading into the town. Four crosses, each i m. from the church, marked the mile limits in every direction of Hexham Sanctuary. Crosses, too, inscribed with the word " Sanctuarium, " were common on the highways, serving probably as sign-posts to guide fugitives to neighbouring sanctuaries. One is still to b< seen at Armathwaite, Cumberland; and another at St Buryan's, Cornwall, at the corner of a road leading down to some ruins known locally as " the Sanctuary." That such wayside crosses were themselves sanctuaries is in most cases improbable, but there still exist in Scotland the remains of a true sanctuary cross. This is known as MacDuff's Cross, near Lindores, Fifeshire. The legend is that, after the defeat of the usurper,Macbeth, in 1057, and the succession of Malcolm Canmore as Malcolm III. to the Scottish throne, MacDuff, as a reward for his assistance, was granted special sanctuary privileges for his kinsmen. Clansmen within the ninth degree of relationship to the chief of the clan, guilty of unpremeditated homicide, could, on reaching the cross, claim remission of the capital sentence. Probably the privilege has been exaggerated, the fugitive kins- men were exempt from outside jurisdiction and liable only to the court of the earl of Fife. The canon law allowed the protection of sanctuary to those guilty of crimes of violence for a limited time only, in order that some compensation (wergild) should be made, or to check blood- vengeance. In several English churches there was a stone seat beside the altar which was known as the frith-stool (peace-stool) , upon which the seeker of sanctuary sat. Examples of such sanctuary-seats still exist at Hexham and Beverley, and of the sanctuary knockers which hung on the church-doors one is still in position at Durham Cathedral. The procedure, upon seeking 130 SANCTUARY sanctuary, was regulated in the minutest detail. The fugitive had to make confession of his crime to one of the clergy, to surrender his arms, swear to observe the rules and regulations of the religious houses, pay an admission fee, give, under oath, fullest details of his crime (the instrument used, the name of the victim, &c.), and at Durham he had to toll a special bell as a formal signal that he prayed sanctuary, and put on a gown of black cloth on .the left shoulder of which was embroidered a St Cuthbert's cross. The protection afforded by a sanctuary at common law was this: a person accused of felony might fly for safeguard of his life to sanctuary, and there, within 40 days, go, clothed in sack- cloth, before the coroner, confess the felony and take an oath of abjuration of the realm, whereby he undertook to quit the king- dom, and not return without the king's leave. Upon confession he was, ipso facto, convict of the felony, suffered attainder of blood and forfeited all his goods, but had time allowed him to fulfil his oath. The abjurer started forth on his journey, armed only with a wooden cross, bareheaded and clothed in a long white robe, which made him conspicuous among medieval way- farers. He had to keep to the king's highway, was not allowed to remain more than two nights in any one place, and must make his way to the coast quickly. The time allowed for his journey was not long. In Edward III.'s reign only nine days were given an abjurer to travel on foot from Yorkshire to Dover. Under the Norman kings there appear to have been two kinds of sanctuary; one general, which belonged to every church, and another peculiar, which had its force in a grant by charter from the king. This latter type could not be claimed by pre- scription, and had to be supported by usage within legal memory. General sanctuaries protected only those guilty of felonies, while those by special grant gave immunity even to those accused of high or petty treason, not for a time only but apparently for life. Of chartered sanctuaries there were at least 22: Abingdon, A/mathwaite, Beaulieu, Battle Abbey, Beverley, Colchester, Derby, Durham, Dover, Hexham Lancaster, St Mary le Bow (London), St Martin's le Grand (London), Merton Priory, North- ampton, Norwich, Ripon, Ramsey, Wells, Westminster, Win- chester,-York (Soc. of Antiq. of London, Archaeologia, viii. 1-44, London, 1787. Sketch of the History of the Asylum or Sanctuary, by Samuel Pegge). Sanctuary being the privilege of the church, it is not surprising to find that it did not extend to the crime of sacrilege; nor does it appear that it was allowed to those who had escaped from the sheriff after they had been delivered to him for execution. Chartered sanctuaries had existed before the Norman invasion. About thirty churches, from a real or pretended antiquity of the privilege, acquired special reputation as sanctuaries, e.g. West- minster Abbey (by grant of Edward the Confessor); Ripon (by grant of Whitlase, king of the Mercians); St Buryans, Cornwall (by grant of ^Ethelstan); St Martin's le Grand, London, and Beverley Minster. " The precincts of the Abbey," says Dean Stanley, " were a vast cave of Adullam for all the distressed and discontented in the metropolis, who desired, according to the phrase of the time, to 'take Westminster.'" Elizabeth Woodville, queen of Edward IV., took refuge in the Abbey with her younger children from the hostility of Richard III. In the next reign the most celebrated sanctuary-seeker was Perkin Warbeck, who thus'twice saved his neck, at Beaulieu and Sheen. John Skelton, tutor and afterwards court poet to Henry VIII., fearing the consequences of his caustic wit as displayed in an attack on Wolsey, took sanctuary at Westminster and died there in 1529. The law of abjuration and sanctuary was regulated by numerous and intricate statutes (see Coke, Institutes, iii. 113); but grave abuses arose, especially in the peculiar sanctuaries. The attack on these seems to have begun towards the close of the I4th century, in the reign of Richard II. During the 15th century violations of sanctuary were not uncommon; the Lollards were forced from churches; and Edward IV. after the battle of Tewkesbury had the duke of Somerset and twenty Lancastrian leaders dragged from sanctuary and beheaded. At the Reformation general and peculiar sanctuaries both suffered drastic curtailment of their privileges, but the great chartered ones suffered most. By the reforming act of 1540 Henry VIII. established seven cities as peculiar sanctuaries. These were Wells, Westminster, Northampton, Manchester, York, Derby and Launceston. Manchester petitioned against being made a sanctuary town, and Chester was substituted. By an act of James I. (1623), sanctuary, as far as crime was concerned, was abolished throughout the kingdom. The privilege lingered on for civil processes in certain districts which had been the site of former religious buildings and which became the haunts of criminals who there resisted arrest — a notable example being that known as Whitefriars between Fleet Street and the Thames, E. of the temple. This locality was nicknamed Alsatia (the name first occurs in Shadwell's plays in Charles II. 's reign), and there criminals were able to a large extent to defy the law (see Sir Walter Scott's Fortunes of Nigel and Peveril of the Peak), arrests only being possible under writs of the Lord Chief Justice. So flagrant became the abuses here and in the other quasi- sanctuaries that in 1697 an act of William III., known as " The Escape from Prison Act," finally abolished all such alleged privileges. A further amending act of 1723 (George I.) completed the work of destruction. The privileged places named in the two acts were the Minories, Salisbury Court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's Rents, Mitre Court, Baldwin's Gardens, The Savoy, The Clink, Deadman's Place, Montague Close, The Mint and Stepney. (See Stephen, History of C rim. Law, i. 113.) In Scotland excommunication was incurred by any who attempted to arrest thieves within sanctuary. The most famous sanctuaries were those attaching to the Church of Wedale, now Stow, near Galashiels., and that of Lesmahagow, Lanark. All religious sanctuaries were abolished in the Northern Kingdom at the Reformation. But the debtor found sanctuary from " diligence" in Holyrood House and its precincts until late in the 1 7th century. This sanctuary did not protect criminals, or even all debtors, e.g. not crown debtors or fraudulent bankrupts; and it was possible to execute a meditatio fugae warrant within the sanctuary. After twenty-four hours' residence the debtor had to enter his name in the record of the Abbey Court in order to entitle him to further protection. Under the Act 1696 c. 5, insolvency concurring with retreat to the sanctuary constituted notour bankruptcy (see Bell, Commentaries, ii. 461). The aboli- tion of imprisonment for debt in 1881 practically abolished this privilege of sanctuary. A presumptive right of sanctuary attached to the royal palaces, and arrests could not be made there. In Anglo-Saxon times the king's peace extended to the palace and 3000 paces around it: it extended to the king himself beyond the precincts. At the present day Members of Parliament cannot be served with writs or arrested within the precincts of the Houses of Parliament, which extend to the railings of Palace Yard. During the Irish agitation of the 'eighties Parnell and others of the Irish members avoided arrest for some little while by living in the House and never passing outside the gates of the yard. The houses of ambassadors were in the past quasi-sanctuaries. This was a natural corollary of their diplomatic immunities (see DIPLOMACY). The privilege was never strictly defined. At one time it was insisted that the immunity accorded an ambassador included his house and those who fled to it. At an earlier date sanctuary had actually been claimed for the quarter of the town in which the house stood. At Rome this privilege was formally abolished by Innocent XI. (Pope 1676- 1689), and in 1682 the Spanish ambassador at the Papal Court renounced all right to claim immunity even for his house. His example was followed by the British ambassador in 1686. Portugal, Sweden, Denmark and Venice abolished by express ordinance in 1748 the asylum-rights of ambassadorial residences. In 1726 the Spanish government had forcibly taken the duke of Ripperda out of the hotel of the English ambassador at Madrid, although the Court of St James had sanctioned his reception there. At Venice, too, some Venetians who had betrayed state secrets to the French ambassador and had taken SANCY— SAND, GEORGE refuge at his house were dragged out by troops sent by the senate. In Europe, generally, the right of sanctuary survived under restrictions down to the end of the i8th century. In Germany the more serious crimes of violence were always excepted. Highwaymen, robbers, traitors and habitual criminals could not claim church protection. In 1418 sanctuary was further regu- lated by a bull of Martin V. and in 1504 by another of Julius II. In a modified form the German Asylrecht lasted to modern tunes, not being finally abolished till about 1780. In France le droit d'asile existed throughout the middle ages, but was much limited by an edict of Francis I. in 1539, Ordonnance sur le faut de la justice. At the Revolution the right of sanctuary was entirely abolished. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T. J. de Mazzinghi, Sanctuaries (Stafford, 1887); J. F. Stephen, Hist, of Criminal Law of England (3 vols., London, 1833); Luke Owen Pike, History of Crime (2 vols., 1875- 1876); Aug. von Bulmerincq, Das Asylrecht (Dorpat, 1853); Henri Wallon, Droit d'asile (Paris, 1837) ; Samuel Pegge," Sketch of History of Asylum or Sanctuary," Soc. of Antiq. of London, Archaeologia viii. 1-44 (London, 1787); A. P. Stanley, Memorials of Westminster Abbey (London, 1882); Bissel, The Law of Asylum in Israel (1884); Graszhoff, " Die Gesetze der romischen Kaiser iiber das Asylrecht der Kirche," in the Archiv f. kath. Kirchenrecht, Bd. 37; E. Loning, Geschichte des Kirchenrechts, i. 37 ; ii. 355. SANCY, NICOLAS DE HARLAY, SEIGNEUR DE (1546-1629), French soldier and diplomatist, belonged to the Protestant branch of the family of Harlay but adopted the Catholic religion in 1572 daring the massacres of the Huguenots. In 1589 he obtained in Geneva and Berne sums sufficient to raise an army of mercenaries for Henry III., partly by the sale of jewels, among them the " Sancy " diamond which in 1835 found its way to the Russian imperial treasure, and partly by leading the Swiss to suppose that the troops were intended for serious war against Savoy. Henry IV. made him superintendent of his finances in 1594, but in 1599 he was replaced by Sully. Meanwhile he had been a second time converted to Catholicism, but his influence at court waned, and he retired from public life in 1605. He survived until the i3th of October 1629, leaving a Discours sur I'occurrence des affaires. His son, ACHILLE HARLAY DE SANCY, bishop of Saint Malo (1581-1646), was educated for the church but resigned his vocation for the career of arms on the death of his elder brother in 1601. For seven years, from 1611 to 1618, he was ambassador at the Turkish court, where he amassed a fortune of some £16,000 sterling by doubtful means, and was bastinadoed by order of the sultan for his frauds. Harlay de Sancy was a learned man and a good linguist, who used his opportunities to acquire a valuable collection of oriental MSS., many of which are now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. On his return to France he joined the Oratorian Fathers, and when Marshal Bassompierre was sent to England in 1627 to regulate the differences between Henrietta Maria and her husband, Harlay de Sancy was attached to the queen's ecclesiastical household, but Charles I. secured his dismissal. He became bishop of St Malo in 1632, and died on the 20th of November 1646. SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876), the pseudonym of Madame Amandine Lucile Aurore Dudevant, nee Dupin, the most pro- lific authoress in the history of literature, and unapproached among the women novelists of France. Her life was as strange and adventurous as any of her novels, which are for the most part idealized versions of the multifarious incidents of her life. In her self-revelations she followed Rousseau, her first master in style, but while Rousseau in his Confessions darkened all the shadows, George Sand is the heroine of her story, often frail and faulty, but always a woman more sinned against than sinning. Thanks, however, to her voluminous correspondence that has recently been published and to family documents that her French biographers have unearthed, there are now full materials for tracing the history of her public and private career, and for forming a clear and unbiased estimate of her character and genius. Her father was Maurice Dupin, a retired lieutenant in the army of the republic; her mother, Sophie Delaborde, the daughter of a Paris bird-fancier. Their ill-assorted marriage took place only a month before the birth of the child (July i, 1804; at Paris). Her paternal grandfather was M. Dupin de Francueil, a farmer-general of the revenue, who married the widow of Count Horn, a natural son of Louis XV., she in her turn being the natural daughter of Maurice de Saxe, the most" famous of the many illegitimate children of Augustus the Strong, by the lovely countess of Konigsmarck. George Sand, who was a firm believer in the doctrine of heredity, devotes a whole volume of her autobiography (Histoire de ma vie, 1857 seq.) to the elaboration of this strange pedigree. She boasts of the royal blood which ran through her veins, and disregarding the bar sinister she claims affinity with Charles X. and Louis XVII., but she is no less frank in declaring that she is vilaine el tres vilaine, a daughter of the people, who shares by birth their instincts and sympathies. Her birth itself was romantic. Her father was playing a country dance at the house of a fellow officer, the future husband of Sophie's sister, when he was told that his wife, who had not long left the room, had borne him a daughter. " She will be fortunate," said the aunt, " she was born among the roses to the sound of music." Passing by her infantine recollections, which go back further than even those of Dickens, we find her at the age of three crossing the Pyrenees to join her father who was on Murat's staff, occupy- ing with her parents a suite of rooms in the royal palace, adopted as the child of the regiment, nursed by rough old sergeants, and dressed in a complete suit of uniform to please the general. For the next ten years she lived at Nohant, near La Chatre in Berri, the country house of her grandmother. Here her character was shaped; here she imbibed that passionate love of country scenes and country life which neither absence, politics nor dissipation could uproot; here she learnt to understand the ways and thoughts of the peasants, and laid up that rich store of scenes and characters which a marvellously retentive memory enabled her to draw upon at will. The progress of her mind during these early years well deserves to be recorded. Education, in the strict sense of the word, she had none. A few months after her return from Spain her father was killed by a fall from his horse. He was a man of remarkable literary gifts as well as a good soldier. " Character," says George Sand, " is in a great measure hereditary: if my readers wish to know me they must know my father." On his death the mother resigned, though not without a struggle, the care of Aurore to her grand- mother, Mme. Dupin de Francueil, a good representative of the ancien regime. Though her husband was a patron of Rousseau, she herself had narrowly escaped the guillotine, and had only half imbibed the ideas of the Revolution. In her son's lifetime she had, for his sake, condoned the mesalliance, but it was im- possible for the stately chatelaine and her low-born daughter- in-law to live in peace under the same roof. She was jealous as a lover of the child's affection, and the struggle between the mother and grandmother was one of the bitterest of Auroie's childish troubles. Next to the grandmother, the most important person in the household at Nohant was Deschatres. He was an ex-abbe who had shown his devotion to his mistress when her life was threatened, and henceforward was installed at Nohant as factotum. He was maire of the village, tutor to Aurore's half- brother, and, in addition to his other duties, undertook the education of the girl. The tutor was no more eager to teach than the pupil to learn. He, too, was a disciple of Rousseau, believed in the education of nature, and allowed his Sophie to wander at her own sweet will. At odd hours of lessons she picked up a smattering of Latin, music and natural science, but most days were holidays and spent in country rambles and games with village children. Her favourite books were Tasso, A tola and Paul et Virginie. A simple refrain of a childish song or the monotonous chaunt of the ploughman touched a hidden chord and thrilled her to tears. She invented a deity of her own, a mysterious Corambe, half pagan and half Christian, and like Goethe erected to him a rustic altar of the greenest grass, the softest moss and the brightest pebbles. 132 SAND, GEORGE From the free out-door life at Nohant she passed at thirteen to the convent of the English Augustinians at Paris, where for the first two years she never went outside the walls. Nothing better shows the plasticity of her character than the ease with which she adapted herself to this sudden change. The volume which describes her conventual life is as graphic as Miss Bronte's Vittette, but we can only dwell on one passage of it. Tired of mad pranks, in a fit of home-sickness, she found herself one evening in the convent chapel. " I had forgotten all; I knew not what was passing in me; with my soul rather than my senses, I breathed an air of ineffable sweet- ness. All at once a sudden shock passed through my whole being, my eyes swam, and I seemed wrapped in a dazzling white mist. I heard a voice murmur in my ear, ' Tolle, lege.' I turned round, thinking that it was one of the sisters talking to me — I was alone. I indulged in no vain illusion; I believed in no miracle; I was quite sensible of the sort of hallucination into which I had fallen ; I neither sought to intensify it nor to escape from it. Only I felt that faith was laying hold of me — by the heart, as I had wished it. I was so filled with gratitude and joy that the tears rolled down my cheeks. I felt as before that I loved God, that my mind embraced and ac- cepted that ideal of justice, tenderness and holiness which I had never doubted, but with which I had never held direct communion, and now at last I felt that this communion was consummated, as though an invincible barrier had been broken down between the source of infinite light and the smouldering fire of my heart. An endless vista stretched before me, and I panted to start upon my way. There was no more doubt or lukewarmness. That I should repent on the'morrow and rally myself on my over-wrought ecstasy never once entered my thoughts. I was like one who never casts a look behind, who hesitates before some Rubicon to be crossed, but having touched the farther bank sees no more the shore he has just left." Such is the story of her conversion as told by herself. It reads more like a chapter from the life of Ste Therese or Madame Guyon than of the author of LUia. Yet no one can doubt the sincerity of her narrative, or even the permanence of her religious feelings under all her many phases of faith and aberrations of conduct. A recent critic has sought in religion the clue to her character and the mainspring of her genius. Only in her case religion must be taken in an even more restricted sense than Matthew Arnold's " morality touched by emotion." For her there was no categorical imperative, no moral code save to follow the promptings of her heart. " Tenderness " she had abundantly, and it revealed itself not only hi effusive sentimentality, as with Rousseau and Chateaubriand, but in active benevolence; " justice " too she had in so far as she sincerely wished that all men should share alike her happiness; but of " holiness," that sense of awe and reverence that was felt in divers kinds and degrees by Isaiah, Sophocles, Virgil and St Paul, she had not a rudimenatry conception. Again in 1820 Aurore exchanged the restraint of a convent for freedom, being recalled to Nohant by Mme de Francueil, who had no intention of letting her granddaughter grow up a devote. She rode across country with her brother, she went out shooting with Deschatres, she sat by the cottage doors on the long summer evenings and heard the flax-dressers tell their tales of witches and warlocks. She was a considerable linguist and knew English, Italian and some Latin, though she never tackled Greek. She read widely though unsystematically, studying philosophy in Aristotle, Leibnitz, Locke and Condillac, and feeding her imagina- tion with Rent and Childe Harold. Her confessor lent her the Genius of Christianity, and to this book she ascribes the first change in her religious views. She renounced once for all the asceticism and isolation of the De imilatione for the more genial and sympathetic Christianity of Chateaubriand. Yet she still clung to old associations, and on her grandmother's death was about to return to her convent, but was dissuaded by her friends, who found her a husband. Casimir Dudevant, whom she married on the i ith of December 1822, was the natural son of a Baron Dudevant. He had retired at an early age from the army and was living an idle life at home as a gentleman farmer. Her husband, though he afterwards deteriorated, seems at that time to have been neither better nor worse than the Berrichon squires around him, and the first years of her married life, during which her son Maurice and her daughter Solange were born, except for lovers' quarrels, were passed in peace and quietness, though signs were not wanting of the coming storm. Among these must be mentioned her friendship with Aurelien de Seze, advocate-general at Bourdeau. De Seze was a middle-aged lawyer with a philosophic turn of mind, and Madame Dudevant for two years kept up with him an intimate correspondence. The friendship was purely platonic, but the husband felt or affected jealousy, and resented an intimacy which he from his total lack of culture was unable to share. The breach quickly widened. He on his part was more and more repelled by a superior woman determined to live her own intel- lectual life, and she on hers discovered that she was mated, if not to a clown, at least to a hobereau whose whole heart was in his cattle and his turnips. So long as the conventionalities were preserved she endured it, but when her husband took to drinking and made love to the maids under her very eyes she resolved to break a yoke that had grown intolerable. The last straw that determined action was the discovery of a paper docketed " Not to be opened till after my death," which was nothing but a railing accusation against herself. She at once quitted Nohant, taking with her Solange, and in 1831 an amicable separation was agreed upon, by which her whole estate was surrendered to the husband with the stipulation that she should receive an allow- ance of £120 a year. She had regained her liberty, and made no secret of her intention to use it to the full. She endeavoured unsuccessfully to eke out her irregularly paid allowance by those expedients to which reduced gentlewomen are driven — fancy- work and painting fans and snuff-boxes; she lived in a garret and was often unable to allow herself the luxury of a fire. It was only as a last resource that she tried literature. Her first apprenticeship was served under Delatouche, the editor of Figaro. He was a native of Berri, like herself, a stern but kindly taskmaster who treated her much as Dr Johnson treated Fanny Burney. George Sand was methodical and had a ready pen, but she lacked the more essential qualities of a Parisian journalist, wit, sparkle and conciseness. At the end of a month, she tells us, her earnings amounted to fifteen francs. On the staff of Figaro was another compatriot with whom she was already intimate as a visitor at Nohant. Jules Sandeau was a clever and attractive young lawyer. Articles written in common soon led to a complete literary partnership, and 1831 there appeared in the Revue de Paris a joint novel entitled Prima Donna and signed Jules Sand. Shortly after this was published in book form with the same signature a second novel, Rose et Blanche. The sequel to this literary alliance is best recounted in George Sand's own words: " I resisted him for three months but then yielded; I lived in my own apartment in an unconventional style." Her first independent novel, Indiana (1832), was written at the instigation of Delatouche, and the world-famous pseu- donym George (originally Georges) Sand was adopted as a compromise between herself and her partner. The " George " connoted a Berrichon as " David " does a Welshman. The one wished to throw Indiana into the common stock, the other refused to lend his name, or even part of his name, to a work in which he had had no share. The novel was received with instant acclamation, and Sainte-Beuve only confirmed the judgment of the public when he pronounced in the Globe that this new author (then to him unknown) had struck a new and original vein and was destined to go far. Delatouche was the first to throw himself at her feet and bid her forget all the hard things he had said of her. Indiana is a direct transcript of the author's personal experiences (the disagreeable husband is M. Dudevant to the life), and an exposition of her theory of sexual relations which is founded thereon. To many critics it seemed that she had said her whole say and that nothing but replicas could follow. Valentine, which was published in the same year, indicated that it was but the first chapter in a life of endless adventures, and that the imagination which turned the crude facts into poetry, and the fancy which played about them like a rainbow, were inexhaustible. As a novel Valentine has little to commend it; the plot is feeble and the characters shadowy. Only in the descriptions of SAND, GEORGE scenery, which here resemble too much purple patches, does George Sand reveal her true inspiration, the artistic qualities by which she will live. No one was more conscious than George Sand herself of her strength and of her weakness. In a preface to a later edition she tells us how the novel came to be written, and, though it anticipates events, this revelation of herself may best be given here. "After the unexpected literary success of Indiana I returned to Berri in 1832 and found a pleasure in painting the scenes with which I had been familiar from a child. Ever since those early days I had felt the impulse to describe them, but as is the case with all profound emotions, whether intellectual or moral, what we most desire to realize to ourselves we are the least inclined to reveal to the world at large. This little nook of Berri, this unknown Vallee Noire, this quiet and unpretentious landscape, which must be sought to find it and loved to be admired, was the sanctuary of my first and latest reveries. For twenty-two years I have lived amongst these pollarded trees, these rutty roads, beside these tangled thickets and streams along whose banks only children and sheep can pass. All this had charms for me alone and did not deserve to be revealed to idle curiosity. Why betray the incognito of this modest country-side without historical association or picturesque sites to commend it to the antiquary or the tourist? The Vallee Noire, so it seemed to me, was part and parcel of myself, the framework in which my life was set, the native costume that I had always worn — what worlds away from the silks and satins that are suited for the public stage. If I could have foreseen what a stir my writings would make, I think I should have jealously guarded the privacy of this sanctuary where, till then, I perhaps was the only soul who had fed the artist's visions and the poet's dreams. But I had no such anticipation; I never gave it a thought. I was compelled to write and I wrote. I let myself be carried away by the secret charm of the air I breathed ; my native air, I might almost call it. The descriptive parts of my novel found favour. The plot provoked some lively criticism on the anti- matrimonial doctrines that I was alleged to have broached before in Indiana. In both novels I pointed out the dangers and pains of an ill-assorted marriage. I thought I had simply been writing a story, and discovered that I had unwittingly been preaching Saint-Simon- ianism. I was not then at an age for reflecting on social grievances. I was too young to do more than see and note facts, and thanks to my natural indolence and that passion for the concrete, which is at once the joy and the weakness of artists, I should perhaps always have remained at that stage if my somewhat pedantic critics had not driven me to reflect and painfully search after the ultimate causes of which till then I had only grasped the effects. But I was so shrewdly taxed with posing as a strong-minded woman and a philosopher that one fine day I said to myself, ' What, I wonder, « philosophy?' " Her liaison with Jules Sandeau, which lasted more than a year, was abruptly terminated by the discovery in their apart- ment on an unexpected return from Nohant of une blanchisseuse quelconque. For a short while she was broken hearted: — " My heart is a cemetery!" she wrote to Sainte-Beuve. " A necro- polis," was the comment of her discarded lover when years later the remark was repeated to him. Her third novel, Lelia (1833), is in the same vein, a stronger and more outspoken diatribe against society and the marriage law. Lelia is a female Manfred, and Dumas had some reason to complain that George Sand was giving them " du Lord Byron au kilo." But a new chapter in her life was now to open. In her despair she turned for comfort and counsel to Sainte-Beuve, now con- stituted her regular father confessor. This ghostly Sir Pandarus recommended new friendships, but she was hard to please. Dumas was " trop commis-voyageur," Jouffroy too serenely virtuous and Musset " trop dandy." Merimee was tried for a week, but the cool cynic and the perfervid apostle of women's rights proved mutually repulsive. Alfred de Musset was intro- duced, and the two natures leapt together as by elective affinity. The moral aspect has been given by Mr Swinburne in an epigram: — " Alfred was a terrible flirt and George did not behave as a perfect gentleman." Towards the end of 1833 George Sand, after winning the reluctant consent of Musset's mother, set out in the poet's company for Italy, and in January 1834 the pair reached Venice, staying first at the Hotel Danieli and then in lodgings. At first it was a veritable honeymoon; conversation never flagged and either found in the other his soul's complement. But there is a limit to love-making, and George Sand, always practical, set to work to provide the means of living. Musset, though he depended on her exertions, was first bored and then irritated at the sight of this terrible iiache a ecrire, whose pen was going for eight hours a day, and sought diversion in the cafes and other less reputable resorts of pleasure. The con- sequence was a nervous illness with some of the symptoms of delirium tremens, through which George Sand nursed him with tenderness and care. But with a strange want of delicacy, to use the mildest term, she made love at the same time to a young Venetian doctor whom she had called in, by name Pagello. The pair went off and found their way eventually to Paris, leaving Musset in Italy, deeply wounded in his affections, but, to do him justice, taking all the blame for the rupture on himself. George Sand soon tired of her new love, and even before she had given him his conge was dying to be on again with the old. She cut off her hair and sent it to Musset as a token of penitence, but Musset, though he still flirted with her, never quite forgave her infidelity and refused to admit her to his deathbed. Among the mass of romans d clef and pamphlets which the adventure produced, two only have any literary importance, Musset's Confessions d'un enfant du sie.de and George Sand's Rile et lui. In the former woman appears as the serpent whose trail is over all; in the latter, written twenty-five years after the event, she is the 'guardian angel abused and maltreated by men. Lui et elle, the rejoinder of the poet's brother Paul de Musset, was even more a travesty of the facts with no redeeming graces of style. It remains to trace the influence, direct or indirect, of the poet on the novelist. Jacques was the first outcome of the journey to Italy, and in precision and splendour of style it marks a distinct progress. The motive of this and of the succeeding novels of what may be called her second period is free (not to be confounded with promiscuous) love. The hero, who is none other than George Sand in man's disguise, makes confession of faith: — " I have never imposed constancy on myself. When I have felt that love was dead, I have said so without shame or remorse and have obeyed Providence that was leading me elsewhere." And the runaway wife writes to her lover: — " O my dear Octave, we shall never pass a night together without first kneeling down and praying for Jacques." Love is a divine instinct: to love is to be virtuous; follow the dictates of your heart and you cannot go wrong — such is the doctrine that George Sand preached and practised. In Les Lettres d'un voyageur, which ran in the Revue des deux mond.es between 1834 and 1836, we have not only impres- sions of travel, but the direct impressions of men and things not distorted by the exigencies of a novel. They reveal to us the true and better side of George Sand, the loyal and devoted friend, the mother who under happier conditions might have been reputed a Roman matron. We could not choose a more perfect specimen of her style than the allegory under which she pictures the " might have been." " I care little about growing old; I care far more not to grow old alone, but I have never met the being with whom I could have chosen to live and die, or if I ever met him I knew not how to keep him. Listen to a story and weep. There was a good artist called Watelet, the best aquafortis engraver of his day. He loved Marguerite Lecomte, and taught her to engrave as well as himself. She left husband and home to go and live with him. The world con- demned them; then, as they were poor and modest, it forgot them. Forty years afterwards their retreat was discovered. In a cottage in the environs of Paris called Le Moulin joli, there sat at the same table an old man engraving and an old woman whom he called his meuniere also engraving. The last design they were at work upon represented the Moulin joli, the house of Marguerite, with the device Cur voile permutem Sabina divitias operosiores? It hangs in my room over a portrait the original of which no one here has seen. For a year the person who gave me this portrait sat with me every night at a little table and lived by the same work. At daybreak we consulted together on our work for the day, and at night we supped at the same little table, chatting the while on art, on sentiment, on the future. The future broke vfaith with us. Pray for me, O Marguerite Lecomte"!" The Everard of the Lettres introduces us to a new and for the time a dominant influence on the life and writings. Michel de Bourges was the counsel whose eloquent pleadings brought SAND, GEORGE the suit for a judicial separation to a successful issue in I836.1 Unlike her former lovers, he was a man of masterful will, a budge philosopher who carried her intellect by storm before he laid siege to her heart. He preached republicanism to her by the hour, and even locked her up in her bedroom to reflect on his sermons. She was but half converted, and fled before long from a republic in which art and poetry had no place. Other celebrities who figure in the Lettres under a transparent disguise are Liszt and Mme d'Agoult (known to literature as Daniel Stern), whom she met in Switzerland and entertained for some months at Nohant. Liszt, in after years when they had drifted apart, wrote of her: " George Sand catches her butterfly and tames it in her cage by feeding it on flowers and nectar — this is the love period. Then she sticks her pin into it when it struggles — that is the conge and it always comes from her. Afterwards she vivisects it, stuffs it, and adds it to her collection of heroes for novels." There is some truth in the satire, but it wholly misrepresents her rupture with Chopin. To explain this we must open a new chapter of the life in which George Sand appears as the devoted mother. The letters to her daughter Solange, which have recently been published, irresistibly recall the letters of Mme de Sevigne to Mme de Grignan. Solange, who inherited all her mother's wild blood with none of her genius, on the eve of a marriage that had been arranged with a Berrichon gentleman, ran away with Clesinger, a sculptor to whom she had sat for her bust. George Sand not only forgave the elopement and hushed up the scandal by a private marriage, but she settled the young couple in Paris and made over to them nearly one-half of her available property. Clesinger turned out a thankless scapegrace and George Sand was at last compelled to refuse to admit him to Nohant. In the domestic quarrel that ensued Solange, who was a very Vivien, got the ear of Chopin. He upbraided the mother with her hard- heartedness, and when she resented his interference he departed in a huff and they never met again. The mention of Liszt has led us to anticipate the end of the story, and we must revert to 1836, when the acquaintance began. She was then living in Paris, a few doors from her friend Mme d'Agoult, and the two set up a common salon in the Hfttel de France. Here she met two men, one of whom indoctrin- ated her with religious mysticism, the other with advanced socialism, Lamennais and Pierre Leroux. In the case of Lamen- nais the disciple outstripped the master. She flung herself into Lamennais's cause and wrote many unpaid articles in his organ, Le Monde, but they finally split on the questions of labour and of women's rights, and she complained that Lamennais first dragged her forwards and then abused her for going too fast. The Lettres a Marcie (1837) are a testimony to his ennobling and spiritualizing personality. Socialism was a more lasting phase, but her natural good sense revolted at the extravagant mum- meries of Pere Enfantin and she declined the office of high priestess. It was doubtless a revulsion of feeling against the doctrinaires and in particular against the puritanic reign of Michel that made her turn to Chopin. She found the maestro towards the end of 1837 dispirited by a temporary eclipse of popularity and in the first stage of his fatal malady, and carried him off to winter with her in the south. How she roughed it on an island unknown to tourists is told in Un hiver A Majorque (1842), a book of travel that may take rank with Heine's Reisebilder. In nearly all George Sand's loves there was a strong strain of motherly feeling. Chopin was first petted by her like a spoilt darling and then nursed for years like a sick child. During this, her second period, George Sand allowed herself to be the mouthpiece of others — " un echo qui embellissait la voix," as Delatouche expressed it. Spiridion (1838) and Les Sept cordes de la lyre (1840) are mystic echoes of Lamennais. Le Compagnon du tour de France (1841), Les Maltres mosaisles 1 The final settlement was concluded in 1836. Mme Dudevant was granted sole legal rights over the two children and her Paris home was restored to her. In return she made over to her husband 40,000 fr. vested in the funds. and Le Meunier d' Angibault (1845), Le Peche de M. Antoine (1847) are all socialistic novels, though they are much more, and good in spite of the socialism. Consuelo (1842-1844) and its sequel La Comtesse de Rudolstadt (1843-1845) are fantaisies & la Chopin, though the stage on which they are played is the Venice of Musset. Chopin is the Prince Karol of Lucrezia Floriani (1847), a self-portraiture unabashed as the Tagebuch einer Verlorenen and innocent as Paul et Virginie. An enumeration of George Sand's novels would constitute a Homeric catalogue, and it must suffice to note only the most typical and characteristic. She contracted with Buloz to supply him with a stated amount of copy for the modest retaining fee of £160 a year, and her editor testifies that the tale of script was furnished with the punctuality of a notary. She wrote with the rapidity of Walter Scott and the regularity of Anthony Trollope. For years her custom was to retire to her desk at 10 P.M. and not to rise from it till 5 A.M. She wrote a la diable, starting with some central thesis to set forth or some problem to investigate, but with no predetermined plot or plan of action. Round this nucleus her characters (too often mere puppets) grouped them- selves, and the story gradually crystallized. This unmethodical method produces in her longer and more ambitious novels, in Consudo for instance and its continuation, a tangled wilderness, the clue to which is lost or forgotten; but in her novelettes, when there is no change of scenery and the characters are few and simple, it results in the perfection of artistic writing, " an art that nature makes." From novels of revolt and tendency novels George Sand turned at last to simple stories of rustic life, the genuine pastoral. It is here that she shows her true originality and by these she will chiefly live. George Sand by her birth and bringing-up was half a peasant herself, in M. Faguet's phrase, " un paysan qui savait parler." She had got to know the heart of the peasant — his superstitions, his suspiciousness and low cunning, no less than his shrewdness, his sturdy independence and his strong domestic attachments. Jeanne, (1844) begins the series which has been happily called the Bucolics of France. To paint a Joan of Arc who lives and dies inglorious is the theme she sets herself, and through most of the novel it is perfectly executed. The last chapters when Jeanne appears as the Velida of Mont Barbot and the Grande Pastoure are a falling off and a survival of the romanticism of her second manner. La Mare au diable (1846) is a clear-cut gem, perfect as a work of Greek art. • FranQois le champi and La Petite Fadette are of no less exquisite workmanship. Les Maitres sonneurs (1853) — the favourite novel of Sir Leslie Stephen — brings the series of village novels to a close, but as closely akin to them must be mentioned the Conies d'une grande-mere, delight- ful fairy tales of the Talking Oak, Wings of Courage and Queen Coax, told to her grandchildren in the last years of her life. The revolution of 1848 arrested for a while her novelistic activities. She threw herself heart and soul into the cause of the extreme republicans, composed manifestos for her friends, addressed letters to the people, and even started a newspaper. But her political ardour was short-lived; she cared little about forms of government, and, when the days of June dashed to the ground her hopes of social regeneration, she quitted once for all the field of politics and returned to her quiet country ways and her true vocation as an interpreter of nature, a spiritualizer of the commonest sights of earth and the homeliest household affections. In 1849 she writes from Berri to a political friend: " You thought that I was drinking blood from the skulls of aristocrats. No, I am studying Virgil and learning Latin ! ' ' In her latest works she went back to her earlier themes of romantic and unchartered love, but the scene is shifted from Berri, which she felt she had exhausted, to other provinces of France, and instead of passionate manifestos we have a gallery of genre pictures treated in the spirit of Francois le champi. " Vous faites," she said to her friend Honore de Balzac, " la comedie humaine; et moi, c'est 1'eglogue humaine que j'ai voulu faire." A word must be said of George Sand as a playwright. She SAND was as fond of acting as Goethe, and like him began with a puppet stage, succeeded by amateur theatricals, the chief entertainment provided for her guests at Nohant. Undaunted by many failures, she dramatized several of her novels with moderate success — Francois le champi, played at the Odeon in 1849, and Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Dore (1862) were the best; Claudie, produced in 1851, is a charming pastoral play, and Le Marquis de Vittemer (1864) (in which she was helped by Dumas fils) was a genuine triumph. Her statue by Clesinger was placed in the foyer of the Theatre Francais in 1877. Of George Sand's style a foreigner can be but an imperfect judge, but French critics, from Sainte-Beuve, Nisard and Caro down to Jules Lemaitre and Faguet, have agreed to praise her spontaneity, her correctness of diction, her easy opulence — the lactea ubertas that Quintilian attributes to Livy. The language of her country novels is the genuine patois of middle France rendered in a literary form. Thus in La Petite Fadette, by the happy device of making the hemp dresser the narrator, she speaks (to quote Sainte-Beuve) as though she had on her right the unlettered rustic and on her left a member of the Academic, and made herself the interpreter between the two. She hits the happy mean between the studied archaism of Courier's Daphnis et Cloe and the realistic patois of the later kailyard novel which for Southerners requires a glossary. Of her style generally the characteristic quality is fluidity. She has all the abandon of an Italian improvisatore, the simplicity of a Bernardin de St Pierre without his mawkishness, the sentimentality of a Rousseau without his egotism, the rhythmic eloquence of a Chateaubriand without his grandiloquence. As a painter of nature she has much in common with Words- worth. She keeps her eye on the object, but adds, like Words- worth, the visionary gleam, and receives from nature but what she herself gives. Like Wordsworth she lays us on the lap of earth and sheds the freshness of the early world. She, too, had found love in huts where poor men dwell, and her miller, her bagpipers, her workers in mosaic are as faithful renderings in prose of peasant life and sentiment as Wordsworth's leech- gatherer and wagoners and gleaners are in verse. Her psychology is not subtle or profound, but her leading characters are clearly conceived and drawn in broad, bold outlines. No one has better understood or more skilfully portrayed the artistic temperament — the musician, the actor, the poet — and no French writer before her had so divined and laid bare the heart of a girl. She works from within outwards, touches first the mainspring and then sets it to play. As Mr Henry James puts it, she inter- views herself. Rarely losing touch of earth, and sometimes of the earth earthy, she is still at heart a spiritualist. Her final word on herself rings true, " Toujours tourmentee des choses divines." Unlike Victor Hugo and Balzac, she founded no school, though Fromentin, Theuriet, Cherbuliez, Fabre and Bazin might be claimed as her collateral descendants. In Russia her influence has been greater. She directly inspired Dostoievski, and Tur- genieff owes much to her. In England she has found her warmest admirers. Elizabeth Barrett Browning wrote sonnets to " the large-brained woman and large-hearted man, self-named George Sand." To Thackeray her diction recalled the sound of village bells faffing sweetly and softly on the ear, and it sent a shiver through John Stuart Mill, like a symphony of Haydn or Mozart. Leslie Stephen advised Thomas Hardy, then an aspiring contri- butor to the Cornhttl, to read George Sand, whose country stories seemed to him perfect. " The harmony and grace, even if strictly inimitable, are good to aim at." He pronounced the Histoire de ma vie about the best biography he had ever read. F. W. H. Myers claimed her as anima naturaliter Christiana and the inspired exponent of the religion of the future. George Eliot by her very name invites and challenges com- parison with George Sand. But it was as a humble follower, not as a rival, that she took George Sand as sponsor. Both women broke with social conventions, but while George Sand (if the expression may be allowed) kicked over the traces, George Eliot was impelled all the more emphatically, because of her exceptional circumstances, to put duty before inclination and to uphold the reign of law and order. Both passed through phases of faith, but while even Positivism did not cool George Eliot's innate religious fervour, with George Sand religion was a passing experience, no deeper than her republicanism and less lasting than her socialism, and she lived and died a gentle savage. Rousseau's Confessions was the favourite book of both (as it was of Emerson), but George Eliot was never converted by the high priest of sentimentalism into a belief in human per- fectibility and a return to nature. As a thinker George Eliot is vastly superior; her knowledge is more profound and her psychological analysis subtler and more scientific. But as an artist, in unity of design, in harmony of treatment, in purity and simplicity of language, so felicitous and yet so unstudied, in those qualities which make the best of George Sand's novels masterpieces of art, she is as much her inferior. Mr Francis Gribblehas summed up her character in" a scornful, insular way " as a h'ght woman. A truer estimate is that of Sainte-Beuve, her intimate friend for more than thirty years, but never her lover. " In the great crises of action her intellect, her heart and her temperament are at one. She is a thorough woman, but with none of the pettinesses, subterfuges, and mental reservations of her sex; she loves wide vistas and boundless horizons and instinctively seeks them out; she is concerned for universal happiness and takes thought for the improvement of mankind — thelastinfirmity and most innocent mania of generous souls. Her works are in very deed the echo of our times. Wher- ever we were wounded and stricken her heart bled in sympathy, and all our maladies and miseries evoked from her a lyric wail." George Sand died at Nohant on the 8th of June 1876. To a youth and womanhood of storm and stress had succeeded an old age of serene activity and then of calm decay. Her nights were spent in writing, which seemed in her case a relaxation from the real business of the day, playing with her grandchildren, gardening, conversing with her visitors — it might be Balzac or Dumas, or Octave Feuillet or Matthew Arnold — or writing long letters to Sainte-Beuve and Flaubert. " Calme, toujours plus de calme," was her last prayer, and her dying words, " Ne detruisez pas la verdure." BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The collected edition of George Sand's works was published in Paris (1862-1883) in 96 volumes, with supplement 109 volumes; the Histoire de ma vie appeared in 20 volumes in 1854-1855. The Etude bibliographique sur les ceuvres de George Sand by " le bibliophile Isaac " (vicomte de Spoelberck) (Brussels, 1868) gives the most complete bibliography. Of Vladimir Karenin's (pseudonym of Mme Komarova) George Sand, the most complete life, the first two volumes (1899-1901) carry the life down to 1839. There is much new material in George Sand et safitte, by S. Rocheblave (I9°5). Correspondence de G. Sand et d' Alfred de Mussel (Brussels, 1904), Correspondance entre George Sand et Gustave Flaubert (1904), and Lettres a Alfred de Mussel et a Sainte-Beuve (1897). E. M. Caro's George Sand (1887) is rather a critique than a life. Lives by Mire- court (1855) and by Haussonville (1878) may also be consulted. Of the numerous shorter studies may be mentioned those of Sainte- Beuve in the Causeries du lundi and in Portraits contemporains; Jules Lemaitre in Les Contemporains, vol. iv. ; E. Faguet, XIX' Siede; F. W. H. Myers, Essays Ancient and Modern (1883); Henry James in North American Review (April 1902) ; Matthew Arnold, Mixed Essays (1879). See also Rene Doumic's George Sand (1909), which has been translated into English by Alys Mallard as George Sand: Some Aspects of her Life and Writings (1910). (F. S.) SAND. When rocks or minerals are pulverized by any agencies, natural or artificial, the products may be classified as gravels, sands and muds or days, according to the size of the individual particles. If the grains are so fine as to be impalpable (about •njVo in. in diameter) the deposit may be regarded, as a mud or day; if many of them are as large as peas the rock is a gravd. Sands may be uniform when they have been sorted out by some agency such as a gentle current of water or the wind blowing steadily across smooth arid lands, but usually they vary much both in the coarseness of their grains and in their mineral com- position. The great source of natural sands is the action of the atmosphere, frost, rain, plants and other agencies in breaking up the surfaces of rocks and redudng them to the condition of fine powder; in other words sands are ordinarily the product of the agencies of denudation operating on the rocks of the earth's 136 SANDAL— SANDALWOOD crust. Not all, however, are of this kind, for a few are artificial, like the crushed tailings produced in the extractions of metals from their ores; there are also volcanic sands which have originated by explosions of steam in the craters of active volcanoes. A great part of the surface of the globe is covered by sand. In fertile regions the soil is very often of a sandy nature; though most soils are mixtures of sand with clay or stones, and may be described as loams rather than as sands. Pure sandy soils are found prin- cipally near sea-coasts where the sand has been blown inwards from the shore, or on formations of soft and friable sandstone like the Greensand. The soil of deserts also is often arenaceous, but there the finer particles have been lifted and borne away by the wind. Accumulations of sand are found also in some parts of the courses of our rivers, very often over wide stretches of the seashore, and more particularly on the sea bottom, where the water is not very deep, at no great distance from the land. Of the rock-making minerals which are common on the earth's crust only a limited number occur at all frequently in sand deposits. For several reasons quartz is by far the commonest ingredient of sands. It is a very abundant mineral in rocks and is comparatively hard, so that it is not readily worn down to a very fine muddy paste. It also possesses practically no cleavage, and does not split up natur- ally into thin fragments. If we add to this that it is nearly insoluble in water and that it does not decompose, but preserves its freshness unaltered after long ages of exposure to weathering, we can see that it has all the properties necessary for furnishing a large portion of the sandy material produced by the detrition of rock masses. With quartz there is often a small amount of felspar (principally micro- dine, orthoclase and oligoclase), but this mineral, though almost as common as quartz in rocks, splits up readily on account of its cleavage, and decomposes into fine, soft, scaly aggregates of mica and kaolin, which are removed by the sifting action of water and are deposited as muds or clays. Small plates of white mica, which, though soft and very fissile, decompose very slowly, are often mingled with the quartz and felspar. In addition to these, all sands contain such minerals as garnet, tourmaline, zircon, rutile and anatase, which are common rock-forming minerals, both hard and resistant to decomposition. Among the less common ingredients are topaz, staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, chlorite, iron oxides, biotite, horn- blende and augite, while small particles of chert, felsite and other fine-grained rocks appear frequently in the coarser sand deposits. Shore sands and river sands, which have not been transported for any great distance from their parent rocks, often contain minerals that are too soft or too readily decomposed to persist. In the Lizard district of Cornwall the sands at the base of cliffs of serpentine are rich in olivine, augite, cnstatite, tremolite and chromite. Near volcanic islands such minerals as biotite, hornblende, augite and zeolites may form a large portion of the local sand deposits. In marine sands also organic substances are almost universally present, either fragments of plants or the debris of calcareous shells, in fact many sands, consist almost entirely of such fragments (shell sands). Around coral islands there are often extensive deposits of comminuted coral (coral sands), mixed with which there is a varying proportion of broken skeletons of calcareous algae, sponge-spicules and other debris of organic origin. The Greensands which are widely distri- buted over the floor of the oceans, in places where the continental shelf merges into the greater depths, owe their colour to small rounded lumps of glauconite. Among the accessory ingredients of sands which are of great value and interest are the precious metals, especially gold and platinum. These are found usually in the lower parts of the sand deposits resting on the bed-rock, because of their high specific gravity, and have been derived from the destruction of the rocks in which they originally occurred either in quartzose veins or as disseminated particles. Tinstone occurs also in this way (" stream-tin "), and in Ceylon, Burma, Brazil, South Africa, &c., precious stones such as the diamond, ruby, spinel, chrysoberyl and tourmaline are found in beds of sand and gravel (gem sands). In general the sand grains have a rounded or oviform shape due to mutual attrition during transport. Those which have been carried farthest are most rounded; sands deposited at no great distance from their parent rock often consist largely of angular grains. The smaller fragments may be carried along in suspension in water, and may travel for many miles without being sensibly worn ; but coarse sands and fine gravels are swept along the bottom and are subjected to an intense grinding action. Something depends also on the hardness of the minerals present in the sands, yet even the diamonds and other gems found in sand deposits have often their corners worn and smoothed. Minerals with very perfect cleavage, such as mica, split up into thin plates under the shock of impact with adjacent grains, and are never rounded like quartz or tourmaline. In deserts the transport of the sands is effected by the wind, and owing to the low viscosity of air even the smallest trains are not held in suspension but are rolled along the ground ; hence very fine quartzose sands are sometimes met with in arid regions with every particle smoothed and polished. These sands flow almost like a liquid and are used in hour-glasses. Similar " desert sands " occur among the sandstones of the Trias and were doubtless formed in the manner described. In addition to river sands, shore sands, marine sand deposits and desert sands, there are many other types of sand deposits. Blown sands are usually found near the seashore, but occur also at the margin of some great lakes like those of N. America; desert sands belong in great part to this category. These sands have been blown into their present position by the wind, and unless fixed by vege- tation are constantly though slowly in movement, being in conse- quence a menace to agricultural land on their leeward sides. They may be shell sands, quartz sands or mixed sands, and often show very marked oblique stratification or " current bedding." The surface of blown sand deposits is generally marked by dunes. Glacial sands are common in districts like Britain and those parts of N. America which have been covered by an ice-sheet. They are really water-borne and have been deposited by streams, though they occur in situations where rivers no longer flow. The waters produced by the melting of the ice-sheets flooded extensive tracts of country, laying down sand and mud deposits in temporary lakes. These sands are usually angular, because they have not been transported to any great distance. The old high-level terraces which border the lower courses of many rivers, though usually consisting of gravel, are often accompanied by considerable sand deposits. Many of the Tertiary and some of the Secondary sandstone rocks are so incompletely consolidated by cementation that they are essentially sand rocks, and especially when weathered may be used as sources of sand. Thus in Britain there are Pliocene sands (St Erth, Cornwall, &c.), Eocene sands (Bagshot sands and Thanet sands) ; and the Lower and Upper Greensand (Cretaceous) are often dug in pits, though sometimes firmly coherent and more properly described as sandstones (?.P.). The economic uses of sands are very numerous. They are largely employed for polishing and scouring both for domestic and manu- facturing purposes. " Bath bricks " are made from the sand of the river Parrett near Bridgwater. Sand for glass-making was formerly obtained at Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight and at Lynn in Norfolk, but must be very pure for the best kinds of glass, and crushed quartz or flint is often preferred on this account. One of the principal uses of sand is for making mortar and cement : for this any good clean quartzose sand free from salts is suitable; it may be washed to remove impurities and sifted to secure uniformity in the size of the individual grains. Moulding sands, adapted for foundry purposes, generally contain a small admixture of clay. Sands are also em- ployed in brick-making, in filtering, and for etching glass and other substances by means of the sand blast. (J. S. F.) SANDAL (from the Latinized form of Gr. o-av6a\iov or aav8a\ov: this probably represents the Persian sandal, slipper; it is not to be referred to Gr. aavls, board), the foot-covering which consists of a sole of leather or other material attached to the sole of the foot by a thong of leather passing between the great and second toe, crossed over the instep and fastened round the ankle (see SHOE and COSTUME, section Greek and Roman). Sandals are only worn regularly among the peoples of Western civilization by friars, though forms of them are found among the peasants in Spain and the Balkans. They have in recent times been adopted by the extreme advocates of hygienic dress, especially for young children. In the early part of the igth century a form of low, light slipper fastened by a ribbon crossed over the instep and round the ankle, and worn by women, was known as a sandal. SANDALWOOD (from Fr. sandal, santal, Gr. travraXov, a&v5a.\oi>, Pers. sandal, chandan, Skt. chandana, the sandal tree; the form " sanders " is probably an English corruption), a fragrant wood obtained from various trees of the natural order Santalaceae, and principally from Santalum album, a native of India. The use of sandalwood dates as far back at least as the 5th century B.C. It is still extensively used in India and China, wherever Buddhism prevails, being employed in funeral rites and religious ceremonies. Until the middle of the i8th century India was the only source of sandalwood. The discovery of a sandalwood in the islands of the Pacific led to difficulties with the natives, often ending in bloodshed, the celebrated missionary John Williams (1796-1839), amongst others, having fallen a victim to an indiscriminate retaliation by the natives on white men visiting the islands. The loss of life in this trade was at one time even greater than in that of whaling, with which it ranked as one of the most adventurous of callings. In India sandalwood is largely used in the manufacture of boxes, fans and other ornamental articles of inlaid work, and to a limited extent in medicine as a domestic remedy for all kinds of pains and aches. SANDARACH— SAND-EEL 137 The oil, obtained by distilling the wood in chips, is largely used as a perfume, few native Indian attars or essential oils being free from admixture with it. In the form of powder or paste the wood is employed in the pigments used by the Brahmans for their distinguishing caste-marks. Red sandalwood, known also as red sanders wood, is the product of a small leguminous tree, Pterocarpus santalinus, native of S. India, Ceylon and the Philippine Islands. Afresh surface of the wood has a rich deep red colour, which on exposure, however, assumes a dark brownish tint. In medieval times red sandalwood possessed a high reputation in medicine, and it was valued as a colouring ingredient in many dishes. It is pharmacologically quite inert. Now it is little used as a colouring agent in pharmacy, its principal application being in wool-dyeing. Several other species of Pterocarpus, notably P. indicus, contain the same dyeing principle and can be used as substitutes for red sandalwood. The barwood and camwood of the Guinea Coast of Africa, from Baphia nitida or an allied species, called santal rouge d'Afrique by the French, are also in all respects closely allied to the red sandalwood of Oriental countries. As a substitute for copaiba (q.v.), sandalwood oil, distilled from the wood of Santalum album, is more expensive and pleasanter to take, but it is less efficient, as it does not contain any analogue to the valuable resin in copaiba. SANDARACH (Fr. sandaraque, Lat. sandaraca, Gr. .). Between 1890 and 1900 the harbour entrance from the Pacific was strongly fortified; it lies through what is called the Golden Gate, a strait about 5 m. long and i m. wide at its narrowest point. The outlook from Mt Tamalpais (2592 ft.), a few miles N., gives a magnificent SAN FRANCISCO view of the city and bay. The site of the city is very hilly and is completely dominated by a line of high rocky elevations that run like a crescent-formed background from N.E. to S.W. across the peninsula, culminating in the S.W. in the Twin Peaks (Las Papas, " The Breasts "), 925 ft. high. Telegraph Hill in the extreme N.E., the site in 1849 of the criminal settlement called " Sydney Town " and later known as the " Latin Quarter," is 294 ft. high; Nob Hill, where the railway and mining " kings " of the 'sixties and 'seventies of the igth century built their homes, which only in recent years has lost its exclusiveness, is 300 ft. high; Pacific Heights, which became the site of a fashionable quarter, is still higher; and in Golden Gate Park there is Strawberry Hill, 426 ft. Hilly as it remains to-day, the site was once much more so, and has been greatly changed by man. Great hills were razed and tumbled into the bay for the gain of land; others were pierced with cuts, to conform to street grades and to the checker-board city plan adopted in the early days. An effort to induce the city to adopt, in the rebuilding after the earthquake of 1906, an artistic plan failed, and reconstruction followed practically the old plan of streets, although the buildings which had marked them had been for the most part obliterated. Some minor suggestions for improvement in arrangement only were observed. Cable lines were first practically tested in San Francisco, in 1873; since the earthquake they have given place, with slight exceptions, to electric car lines. A drive of some 20 m. may be taken along the ocean front, through the Presidio, Golden Gate Park, and a series of handsome streets in the west end. Market Street, the principal business street, is more than 3 m. long and 1 20 ft. broad. For nearly its full extent, excepting the immediate water-front, and running westward to Van Ness Avenue, a distance of 2 m., the buildings lining it on both sides and covering the adjoining area, a total of some 2000 acres, or 514 blocks, equivalent to | of the city plan, were reduced to ruins in the fire following the earthquake; only a few large buildings of so-called " fire-proof " construction remained standing on the street, and these had their interiors completely " gutted." Repairs on the buildings left standing on this street alone involved an outlay of $5,000,000. Almost the whole of this area was built up again by 1910. As the result of the reconstruction of this section, thousands of wooden buildings, which had been a striking architectural characteristic of the city, were replaced by structures of steel, brick, and, especially, reinforced concrete. Before the earthquake wood had been employed to a large extent, partly because of the accessibility, cheapness and general excellence of redwood, but also because of the belief that it was better suited to withstand earthquake shocks. While the wooden buildings were little damaged by the shocks, the comparative non-inflammability of redwood proved no safeguard and fire swept the affected area irresistibly. In 1900 only one-thirteenth of the buildings in the city were of other material than wood. Of the 28,000 buildings destroyed in the disaster of 1906, valued approximately at $105,000,000, only 5000 were such as had involved steel, stone or brick in their construction. The new buildings, on which an estimated amount of $150,000,000 had been expended up to April 1909, and numbering 25,000 at that date, were built under stringent city ordinances governing the methods of building employed, to reduce the danger from fire to a minimum. The use of rein- forced concrete as a building material received a special impetus in consequence. In size and value the new buildings generally exceed their predecessors, buildings eight to eighteen storeys in height being characteristic in the Market Street section. Owing to the complete reconstruction of its business section San Francisco is equalled by few cities in the possession of office and business buildings of the most modern type. Buildings. — Among the buildings in the burned section restored since 1906, the Union Trust, Mutual Savings, Merchants Exchange, Crocker, Flood and the Call (newspaper) buildings are notable. Among business buildings built since the fire are the Phelan building (costing more than $2,000,000), the buildings of the Bank of Cali- fornia, the Alaska Commercial Company, the First National Bank and the San Francisco Savings Union, and the Chronicle (newspaper) building. The architecture of the city until the earthquake and fire of 1906 was very heterogeneous. Comparatively few buildings were of striking merit. The old City Hall (finished in 1898), destroyed in 1906, was a great edifice of composite and original style, built of bricks of stucco facing (cost $6,000,000). Provision was made to erect a new building at a cost of $5,000,000. The Hall of Justice, which houses the criminal and police courts and the police depart- ment of the city, was another fine structure. Provision was made in 1^09 to replace it by a new building. Since the fire of 1906 a new Custom House has been built, costing $1,203,319. The other Federal buildings are not architecturally noteworthy. The Post Office, which withstood the fire and has since undergone repairs, is a massive modern building of granite (original cost $5,000,000). The buildings of the church and college (St Ignatius) of the Jesuits cover more than a city block; those of the Dominicans are equally extensive, and are architecturally imposing. There are several magnificent hotels. The Palace, an enormous structure covering a city block (it had 1200 rooms and cost more than $3,000,000), known as the oldest and most famous hostelry of the city, and architecturally interesting, was completely destroyed by the fire, but has been replaced by a new building. The St Francis, completely reconstructed since the fire, and the Fairmont are new. A revival of the old Spanish-Moorish " mission " (monastery) style has exercised an increasing influence and is altogether the most pleasing development of Californian architecture. Many buildings or localities, not in themselves re- markable, have interesting associa'tions with the history and life of the city. Such are Pioneer Hall, the home of the Society of California Pioneers (1850), endowed by James Lick; Portsmouth Square, where the flag of the United States was raised on the 8th of July 1846, and where the Committee of Vigilance executed criminals in 1851 and 1856; Union Square, a fashionable shopping centre, decorated with a column raised in honour of the achievements of the United States Navy in the Spanish- American War of 1898; also the United States Branch Mint, associated with memories of the early mining days (the present mint dates only from 1874).— Parks. — The parks of the city are extensive and fine. Golden Gate Park (about 1014 acres) was a waste of barren sand dunes when acquired by the municipality in 1870, but skilful planting and culti- vation have entirely transformed its character. It is now beautiful with semi-tropic vegetation. The Government presidio or military reservation (1542 acres) is practically another city park, more favourably situated and of better land than Golden Gate Park, and better developed. A beautiful drive follows the shore, giving views of the Golden Gate and the ocean. Near the W. end of Golden Gate Park are the ocean beach, the Cliff House, repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, the last time in 1907 — a public resort on a rocky cliff overhanging the sea — the seal rocks, frequented all the year round by hundreds of sea-lions, Sutro Heights, the beautiful private grounds of the late Adolph Sutro, long ago opened to the public, and the Sutro Baths, one of the largest and finest enclosed baths and winter gardens of the world. Nearly in the centre of the city is the old Franciscan mission (San Francisco de Asis, popularly known as Mission Dolores), a landmark of San Francisco's history (1776). Libraries, Museums, &c. — The Public Library has more than 100,000 volumes (it had more than 165,000 volumes before the fire of 1906, but then lost all but about 25,000). That left to the city by Adolph Sutro had more than 200,000 volumes, but suffered from the fire and earthquake of 1906 and now has about 125,000. It included remarkable incunabula, 16th-century literature, and scientific literature; and among its special collections are Lord Macaulay's library of British Parliamentary papers, a great collection of English Commonwealth pamphlets, one on the history of Mexico, and other rarities. The Mechanics-Mercantile Library (35,000 volumes) was formed before the fire of 1906 (when the entire collection of 200,000 volumes was destroyed) by the merging of the Mechanics Institute Library (116,000 volumes) and the Mercantile Library (founded 1852; 80,000 volumes). The Law Library, the libraries of the San Francisco Medical Society, and the French library of La Ligue Nationale Francaise (1874), were destroyed in the fire of 1906 and re-established. The building of the California Academy of Sciences (founded 1853, endowed by James Lick with about $600,000) was destroyed in 1906. In Golden Gate Park is a museum owned by the city with exhibits of a wide range, including history, ethnology, natural history, the fine arts, &c. Very fine mineral exhibits by the State Mining Bureau, and California Agricultural and Pacific Coast commercial displays by the CaliforniaDevelopment Board, are housed in the Ferry Building, and there is a Memoriaj Museum in Golden Gate Park. The California School of Mechanic Arts was endowed by James Lick with $540,000. The San Francisco Institute of Art, conducted by the San Francisco Art Association (organized 1872), known until the fire of 1906 as the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, was deeded (1893) to the Regents of the State University in trust for art purposes by a later owner. The building was totally destroyed and the institute was re-established under the new name on the same site. The school conducted by this institute had a fine collection of casts, presented to the city by the government of France. It is said to be the largest university art school of the country. The law, medical, dental, chemical and pharmaceutical departments of the State University are also in the city. Among other educational insti- tutions are the Cogswell Polytechnic College, the Wilmerding School 146 SAN FRANCISCO of Industrial Arts, and the California School of Design. In sculpture and painting not much has yet been done to adorn the city. The self-sufficingness of San Francisco, long forced upon it by the great distance from the older culture of the Eastern States, has thus far shown itself particularly only in the general features of society. Few names belong by exclusive right to San Francisco's literary annals, — the most noteworthy being those of Bret Harte, Joaquin Miller and Henry George; but perhaps a score among the better known of the more recent writers in the country have done enough of their work here to connect them enduringly with the city. The Bohemian Club is a famous centre of literary and artistic life. Among the daily newspapers the San Francisco Examiner (Independent- Democratic, 1865), the Chronicle (Republican, 1865), the Call (Republican, 1856) and the San Francisco Bulletin (Independent- Republican, 1855) are chiefly important. Suburbs. — The city suburbs are partly across the bay and partly to the north and south on the peninsula. Oakland, Berkeley, the home of the State University (damaged by the earthquake), and Alameda, all eastward just across the bay; Burlingame, San Mateo, Menlo Park and Palo Alto, wealthy and fashionable towns south- ward on the peninsula; Sausalito and San Rafael, summer residence towns on the northern peninsula across the Golden Gate; all lie well within an hour of San Francisco, and are practically suburbs of the metropolis. Many excursions into the surrounding country are very attractive. Mt. Tamalpais has already been referred to. The railroad in making this ascent makes curves equivalent to forty-two whole circles in a distance of 8J m., at one place paralleling its track five times in a space of about 300 ft. Climate. — San Franciscan climate is breezy, damp and at times chilling; often depressing to the weakly, but a splendid tonic to others. In a period of 32 years, ending December 1903, the extremes of temperature were 29° and 100° F. ; the highest monthly average 65°, the lowest 46°; the average for January, Mardh, June, Sep- tember and December, respectively 50°, 54 , 59°, 61°, and 51° F. The average rainfall was 22-5 in., falling mostly from November to March. Every afternoon, especially from October to May, a stiff breeze sweeps the city ; every afternoon in the summer the fogs roll over it from the ocean. Though geraniums and fuchsias bloom through the year in the open, an overcoat is often needed in summer. Communications and Commerce. — San Francisco Bay is the most important as well as the largest harbour on the Pacific coast of the United States. There is a difference of a fathom in the mean height of the tides. Deep-water craft can go directly to docks within a short distance of their sources of supply, around the bay. In 1909 extensive improvements to the water front were under way, and land has been purchased west of Fort Mason for the construction of wharves and warehouses for the United States Transport Service. The largest craft can always enter and navigate the bay, and there are ample facilities of dry and floating docks. Steamer connexions are maintained with Australia, Hawaii, Mexico, Central and South America, the Philippines, China and Japan. San Francisco in 1909 had much the largest commerce of any of the Pacific ports. For 1909 the total imports of merchandise for the port were valued at $51,468,597 and the exports at $31,100,309. From 1891 to 1900 San Francisco dropped from the fifth to the eighth rank among the customs districts of the United States in point ofaggregate commerce (the ports of Puget Sound rising in the same period from the twentieth to the tenth place). From 1893 to 1903 the yearly imports averaged $37,968,152, exports $33,658,266, and duties collected $6,642,173. The vessel movement for 1909 amounted to 4,959,728 tons arrivals and 4,974,922 tons departures. The foreign trade is chiefly with British Columbia, South America, China and Japan, and there is a considerable trade with Europe, Australia and Mexico. Trade with the Philippine Islands and the Hawaiian Islands and Alaska is important, while the coastwise trade with Pacific ports exceeds all the rest in tonnage. Lumber, grain and flour, fruits and their pro- ducts, fish, tea and coffee are characteristic staples of commerce. While the export grain business had by 1909 shifted to ports in Oregon and Washington, San Francisco is the great receiving port for cereals on the Pacific Coast. San Francisco's permanence as one of the greatest ports of the country is assured by its magnificent position, the wealth of its " back country," and its command of trans-Pacific and trans-continental commercial routes. It is very nearly the shortest route, great circle sailing, from Panama to Yokohama and Hongkong; the Panama Canal will shorten the sea route from Liverpool and Hamburg by about 5500 m. and from New York by 7800. Three trans-continental railway systems — the Southern Pacific (with two trans-continental lines, the Southern and the old Central Pacific), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Western Pacific — connect the city with the Eastern States; and besides these, it has traffic connexions with the three trans-continental lines of the north, the Canadian Pacific, Great Northern and Northern Pacific. Lines of the Southern Pacific and its branches connect the whole state with the city, a number of smaller roads — of which the most important is the North-Western Pacific — joining it with the surrounding districts. On the 1st of July 1900 the first train of the Santa Pe1 left San Francisco for the East ; a significant event, as there had before been practically only one railway corporation (the Southern Pacific) controlling trans-continental traffic at San Fran- cisco since 1869. Only one railway, the Southern Pacific's lower coast route, actually enters the city. Some ten other roads, great and small, have their terminals around the bay. Manufactures. — San Francisco in 1900 held twelfth place among the cities of the Union in value of output; in 1905 it ranked thirteenth. The total value of the factory products of tae city in 1905 was $137,788,233 as against $107,023,567 in 1900. The leading pro- ducts and their value in 1905, where given, were : sugar and molasses refining; printing and publishing, $9,424,494 (of which $5,575,035 was for newspapers and periodicals) ; slaughtering and meat packing (wholesale), $8,994,992; shipbuilding; foundry and machine-shop products, $8,991,449; clothing, $4,898,095; canning and pre- serving, $4,151,414; liquors (malt, $4,106,034; vinous, $53,511); coffee and spice roasting and grinding, $3,979,865; flour and grist- mill products, $3,422,672; lumber, planing and mill products, including sash, doors and blinds, $2,981,552; leather, tanning and finishing, $2,717,542; bags, $2,473,170; paints, $2,048,250. The development of the petroleum fields of the state has greatly stimulated manufactures, as coal has always been dear, whereas the crude oil is now produced very cheaply. The Union Iron Works on the peninsula is one of the greatest shipbuilding, plants of the country. Government. — Charters were granted to the city in 1850, 1851 and 1856. By the last the city and county, which until then had main- tained separate governments, were consolidated. Under this charter San Francisco throve despite much corruption, and it was because the provisions of the State Constitution of 1879 seemed likely to compel the adoption of another charter that the city decisively rejected that constitution. After many years of notorious " boss rule, the city in 1896 elected a reform mayor. This was the most important movement for good government in its history since the Vigilance Committee of 1856. It _was followed by the adoption (1898) of a new charter, which came into effect on the 1st of January 1900. Elections are biennial. The inclusion in the charter of the principle of the " initiative and referendum " enables a percentage of the voters to compel the submission of measures to public approval. The city's control is centralized, great power being given to the mayor. He appoints and removes members of the fire, police, school, election, park, civil service, health and public works commissions of the city; his veto may not be overcome by less than a five-sixths vote of the board of supervisors, and he may veto separate items of the budget. Taxation for ordinary municipal purposes is limited to I % on property values, extra taxes being allowed for unusual purposes; but the city cannot be bonded without the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the electorate. Civil service is also provided for. There is a highly developed license system. The board of public works, composed of engineers, controls streets, sewers, buildings and public improvements. In 1885 the assessed property valuation of the city, on a basis of 60% of the actual value, was $223,509,560; in 1905, $502,892, 459 ;l in 1910 the total was $492,867,037. The net bonded debt on the 3Oth of June 1909 was $10,130,062-32. The water-supply system was greatly improvea after the earthquake of 1906; whereas before the earthquake one main supply pipe brougnt all the water to the city, there have since been installed five systems which work independently of each other. Provision is made for filling the mains with salt water from the bay if necessary in fighting fire. While the supply had been furnished by a private corporation, the city was in 1910 planning for the ownership of its water-system, the supply to be drawn from the Sierras at a cost of some $45,000,000. Water was at that time in remote parts of the city drawn from artesian wells. In 1903 almost ten-elevenths of the street railways were controlled by one. Eastern corporation, which was involved in the charges of municipal corruption that were the most prominent feature of the recent political history of the city. The electric power and light are drawn from the Sierras, 140 m. distant. Population. — The population of San Francisco increased in succes- ' sive decades alter 1850 by 67-6, 16-3, 56-5, 27-8, i^-6and 21-6%. The population is very cosmopolitan. Germans and Irish are not so numerous here, relatively, as in various other cities, although in 1900 the former constituted 30-1 and the latter 13-6% of the total population. There is a large Ghetto, a so-called Latin Quarter, where Spanish sounds and signs are dominant, a Little Italy and a Chinese quarter of which no other city has the like. Chinatown, at the foot of Nob Hill, covers some twelve city blocks, and with its temples, rich bazaars, strange life and show of picturesque colours and customs, it is to strangers one of the most interesting portions of the city. It was completely destroyed in the fire of 1906, and its in- habitants removea temporarily across the bay to Oakland, but by 1910 the_ quarter had been practically rebuilt jn an improved manner, yet retaining its markedly oriental characteristics. The new China- town gained considerably in sanitation and in the housing of its commercial establishments. San Francisco has naturally been the centre of anti-Chinese agitation. The success of the exclusion laws is seen (though this is not the sole cause) in the decrease of the Chinese population from 24,613 to 13,954 between 1890 and 1900. 1 For the fiscal year 1906-1907 the assessed value was $375,932,447, indicating the drop in values immediately after the earthquake and fire, and, by comparison with the 1910 figures, the extent of recovery. SAN FRANCISCO H7 The Japanese numbered 1781 in 1900 and have very rapidly increased. The question of their admission to the public schools, rivalry in labour and trade, and other racial antagonisms attendant on their rapid increase in numbers, created conflicts that at one time seriously involved the relations of the two countries. Two Chinese papers are published. More than half of the daily papers are foreign language. History. — A Spanish presidio (military post), and the Francis- can mission of San Francisco de Asis, on the Laguna de los Dolores, were founded near the northern end of the peninsula in 1776. San Francisco was not one of the important settlements. Even the very important fact whether it was ever actually a pueblo — i.e. a legally recognized and organized town — was long a controverted question. Up to 1835 there were two settlements on the peninsula — one about the presidio, the other about the mission; the former lost importance after the practical abandon- ment of the presidio in 1836, the latter after the secularization of the mission, beginning in 1834. The year 1835-1836 marked the beginning of a third settlement destined to become the present San Francisco. This was Yerba Buena (" good herb," i.e. wild mint), founded on a little cove of the same name S.E. of Telegraph Hill, extending inland to the present line of Mont- gomery Street. (The cove was largely filled in as early as 1851.) The site of the city is very different from that of most American towns, and seemed a most unpromising location. The hills were barren and precipitous, and the interspaces were largely shifting sand-dunes; but on the E. the land sloped gently to the bay. In 1835-1839 " San Francisco " had an ayuntamiento (town-council), and the different municipal officers seem to have been located at the same or different times at the mission, the presidio, or at Yerba Buena; the name San Francisco being applied indifferently to all three settlements. The ayuntamiento, apparently recognizing the future of Yerba Buena, granted lots there, and as the older settlements decayed Yerba Buena throve. In 1840 there were only a handful of inhabitants; in 1846, when (on the pth of July) the flag of the United States was raised over the town, its prosperity already marked it as the future commercial " metropolis " of the coast. In this year a Mormon colony joined the settlement, making it for a time a Mormon town. The population in the year before the gold discovery probably doubled, and amounted to perhaps 900 in May 1848. The first news of the gold discoveries of January 1848 was received with incredulity at San Francisco (to give Yerba Buena the name it formally assumed in 1847), and there was little excitement until April. In May there was an exodus. By the middle of June the hitherto thriving town had been abandoned by a large majority of its inhabitants. Realty at first fell a half in value, labour rose many times in price. Newspapers ceased publication, the town council suspended sessions, churches and business buildings were alike empty. When the truth became known regarding the mines a wonderful " boom " began. The population is said to have been 2000 in February (in which month the first steamer arrived with immigrants from the East over the Isthmus), 6000 in August, and 20,000 by the end of the year. A city of tents and shanties rose on the sand-dunes. Realty values rose ten-fold in 1849. Early in 1850 more than 500 vessels were lying in the bay, most of them deserted by their crews. Many rotted; others were beached, and were converted into stores and lodging houses. Customs revenues rose from $20,000 in the first half of 1848 to $175,000 in the second half and to $4,430,000 in the year ending in June 1852. There was at first no idea of permanent settlement, and naturally no time whatever to improve the city. Great quantities of expensive merchandise glutted the market and were sunk in the liquid mud of the streets as fillage for the construction of sidewalks. Between December 1849 and June 1851 seven " great " fires, destroying in the aggregate property valued at twenty or twenty-five millions of dollars, swept the business district. Half of this was in the fire of the 4th of May 1851, which almost completely destroyed the city. These misfortunes led to a more general employment of brick and stone in the business quarter. It is characteristic of the vagaries of Californian commerce in the early years that dressed granite for some build- ings was imported from China. In these days the society of San Francisco was extraordinary. It was the most extreme of all democracies. Probably never before nor since in America was there a like test of self-develop- ment. Unusual courage and self-reliance were necessary for success. Amusements were coarse and unrestrained. Gambling was the fiercest passion. Property was at first, in San Francisco as in the mines, exceptionally secure; then insecure. Crime became alarmingly common, and the city government was too corrupt and inefficient to repress it. It was estimated (Bancroft) that up to 1854 there were 4200 homicides and 1200 suicides; in 1855 the records show 583 deaths by violence. There were almost no legal convictions and executions. Juries would not punish homicide with severity. In 1851 the first Committee of Vigilance was formed and served from June to September, when it disbanded; it was the nucleus of the second and greater committee, active from May to August of 1856. By these committees criminals were summarily tried, convicted and punished; suspicious characters were deported or intimidated. These vigilantes were the good citizens (the committee of 1851 included some 800 and that of 1856 some 6000-8000 citizens of all classes), who organized outside of law, " not secretly, but in debate, in daylight, with sobriety and decorum," to defend and establish, through defying, its rule. In this they were comparatively successful. Crime was never again so brazen and daring, and 1856 marks also the beginning of political reform. San Francisco's action was widely imitated over the state. In 1877 during the labour troubles a Committee of Safety was again organized, but had a very brief existence. The United States military authorities in August 1847 author- ized a municipal government. Under a municipal ordinance another was chosen in December 1848 to succeed it, but the parent government pronounced the election illegal; nevertheless the new organization continued to act, though another was chosen and recognized as legal. There were for a time at the end of 1848 three (and for a longer time two) civil governments and one military. Neither the military nor municipal organiza- tion was competent to give adequate law and peace to the community; and therefore in February 1849 the citizens elected a " Legislative Assembly," which they empowered to make laws not in " conflict with the Constitution of the United States nor the common laws thereof." This was proclaimed revolutionary by the military authorities, but such illegalities continued to spread over the state, until in June 1849 the Convention was called that framed the State Constitution, Cali- fornia being admitted in September 1850 to the Union. Pro- visional civil officers were elected throughout the state, and the Legislative Assembly came to an end. The charters of 1850, 1851 and 1856 have already been referred to. The first public school was established in 1849. In 1855-1856 a disastrous commercial panic crippled the city; and in 1858, when at the height of the Fraser river gold-mine excitement it seemed as though Victoria, B.C., was to supplant San Francisco as the metropolis of the Pacific, realty values in the latter city dropped for a time fully a half in value. In 1859 foreign coin was first refused by the banks. Up to this time first gold dust, then private coins, and later money of various countries, had circulated in California. In 1860 mail communication was established with the East by a pony express, the charge being $5.00 for a half-ounce. Some reference must be made to the Mexican land-grant litigation. The high value of land in and about the city caused the fabrication of two of the most famous claims examined and rejected as fraudulent by the United States courts (the Limantour and Santillan claims). They involved 7 sq. leagues of land and many millions of dollars. Another land question already referred to (that whether San Francisco was entitled as a pueblo to 4 sq. leagues of public land) was settled affirmatively in 1867, but the final land patents were not issued until 1884 by the national government. When the Civil War came in 1861 the attitude of San Francisco 148 SANGALLO was at first uncertain, for the pro-slavery Democrats had controlled the state and city, although parties were remaking in the late 'fifties. About 75,000 arms are supposed to have been surreptitiously sent to California by the secessionist Secre- tary of War, J. B . Floyd ; and the pro-slavery party seems to have planned to try for union with the Confederacy, or to organize a Pacific Coast republic. Thomas Starr King (1824-1864), a Unitarian minister, was the heroic war-time figure of the city, the leader of her patriotism. Her money contributions to the Sanitary Funds were, it is said, greater than those of any city in the country; and in every other way she abundantly evidenced her love for the Union. The curious Chapman (or Asbury Harpending) case of 1863 was a Confederate scheme involving piracy on Federal vessels in the Pacific and an effort to gain the secession of the state. It had no practical importance. From 1850-1877 was the " silver era " of San Francisco (see CALIFORNIA). It paralleled the excitement and gambling of 1849, and despite losses was a great stimulus to the city's growth. In September 1869 the Central Pacific line was completed to Oakland, and in the next four years there was a crash in real estate values inflated during the railway speculation. In 1876 railway connexion was made with Los Angeles. The 'seventies were marked by the growth of the anti-Chinese movement, and labour troubles, culminating in 1877-1879 with the "sand- lots " agitation and the formation of the Constitution of 1879 (see CALIFORNIA), in all of which San Francisco was the centre. The feeling against the Chinese found expression sometimes in unjust and mean legislation, such as the famous " queue ordin- ance " (to compel the cutting of queues — the gravest insult to the Chinese) , and an ordinance inequitably taxing laundries. The Chinese were protected against such legislation by the Federal courts. The startling and romantic changes of earlier years long ago gave way to normal municipal problems and ordinary municipal routine. In the winter of 1894 the California Mid- winter International Exposition was held in Golden Gate Park. Since 1898 the governmental changes previously referred to, the location of a new trans-continental railway terminus on the bay, and the new outlook to the Orient, created by the control of the Philippines by the United States, and increased trade in the Pacific and with the Orient, have stimulated the growth and ambitions of the city. Special mention must be made of the two citizens to whom San Francisco, as it is to-day, owes so much, viz. James Lick (1796-1876), a cold man with few friends, who gave a great fortune to noble ends; and Adolph Sutro (1830-1898), famous for executing the Sutro Tunnel of the Comstock mines of Virginia City, Nevada, and the donor of various gifts to the city. The partial destruction of San Francisco by earthquake and fire in 1906 was one of the great catastrophes of history. Earth- quakes had been common but of little importance in California until 1906. In more than a century there had been three shocks called " destructive " (1839, 1865, 1868) and four " exceptionally severe " at San Francisco, besides very many light shocks or tremors. The worst was that of 1868; it caused five deaths, and cracked a dozen old buildings. Heavy earthquake shocks on the morning of the i8th of April 1906, followed by a fire which lasted three days, and a few slighter shocks, practically destroyed the business section of the city and some adjoining districts. The heaviest shock began at 12 minutes 6 seconds past 5 o'clock a.m., Pacific standard time, and lasted i minute 5 seconds. Minor shocks occurred at intervals for several days. The earthquake did serious damage throughout the coast region of California from Humboldt county to the southern end of Fresno county, a belt about 50 m. wide. The damage by earthquake to buildings in San Francisco was, however, small in comparison to that wrought by the fire which began soon after the principal shock on the morning of the i8th. About half the population of the city, it was estimated, spent the nights while the fire was in progress out of doors, with practically no shelter. Some 200,000 camped in Golden Gate Park and 50,000 in the presidio military reservation. The difficulty of checking the fire was increased through the breaking of the water-mains by the earthquake, draining the principal reservoirs. Traffic by street cars was made impossible by the twisting of the tracks. To stop the fire rows of buildings were dynamited. In this way many fine mansions on Van Ness Avenue were destroyed, and the westward advance of the conflagration was stopped at Franklin Street, one block west. General Frederick Funston, in command at the presidio, with the Federal troops under him, assumed control, and the city was put under military law, the soldiers assisting in the work of salvage and relief. On the 2ist the fire was reported under control. A committee of safety was organized by the citizens and by the city authorities acting in conjunction with General Funston, and measures were adopted for the prevention of famine and disease, permanent camps being estab- lished for those who had been rendered homeless and not provided for by removal to other cities. Assistance with money and supplies was immediately given by the nation and by foreign countries, a committee of the Red Cross Society being put in charge of its administration. By the 23rd of April about $10,000,000 had been subscribed by the people of the United States; Congress voted $2,500,000 from the national treasury. The committee organized as the Red Cross Relief Corporation completed its work in 1908, having spent for the relief of the hungry, for the sick and injured, and for housing and rehabilita- tion of individuals and families, in round numbers $9,225,000. As the result of the earthquake and fire about 500 persons lost their lives; of those two were shot as looters. Buildings valued at approximately $105,000,000 were destroyed. The total loss in damage to property has been variously estimated at from $350,000,000 to $500,000,000. To cover the loss there was about $235,000,000 of insurance in some 230 companies. Reconstruction in the burned section began at once, with the result that it was practically rebuilt in the three years following the earthquake. Wages for men employed in building, owing in part to scarcity of labour but chiefly to action of the labour unions, rose enormously, masons being paid $12 a day for a day of 8 hours. High prices of materials and of haulage and freight rates added difficulty to the task of rebuilding, which was accom- plished with remarkable energy and speed. In May 1907 there was a street-car strike of large dimensions. Van Ness Avenue, which during the process of rebuilding had assumed the character of a business thoroughfare, did not maintain this status, the business centre returning to the reconstructed Market Street. A new retail business district developed in what is known as the mission district and in Fillmore Street. A new residence district known as Parkside was developed south of Golden Gate Park. For description and general features, see Doxey's Guide to San Francisco and the Pleasure Resorts of California (San Francisco, 1897); and various guides and other publications of the California Development Board (formed by consolidation of the State Board of Trade and California Promotion Committee) in San Francisco. For economic interests and history sec the bibliography of the article CALIFORNIA. See also Frank Soule and others, Annals of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1858); John S. Hittell, A History of the City of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1878) ; B. E. Lloyd, Lights and Shades of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1876) ; C. W. Stoddard, In the Footprints of the Padres (San Francisco, 1900); Bernard Moses, The Establishment of Municipal Government in San Francisco (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1889). Many legal questions of interesting constitutional, treaty and common law import have been decided in the Federal (and state) courts in cases involving Chinese; see the collections of reports. For good accounts of the great earthquake and fire, see D. S. Jordan (ed.), The California Earthquake of 1906 (1906); F. W. Aitken and E. Hilton, History of the Earthquake and Fire in San Francisco (1907) ; G. K. Gilbert and others, San Francisco Earthquake and Fire (Washington, 1907). SANGALLO, the surname of a Florentine family, several members of which became distinguished in the fine arts. I. GIULIANO DI SANGALLO (1445-1516) was an architect, sculptor, tarsiatore and military engineer. His father, Francesco di Paolo Giamberti, was also an able architect, much employed by Cosimo de' Medici. During the early part of his life Giuliano worked chiefly for Lorenzo the Magnificent, for whom he built SANGER— SAN GERMAN 149 a fine palace at Poggio-a-Cajano, begun in 1485, between Florence and Pistoia, and strengthened the fortifications of Florence, Castellana and other places. Lorenzo also employed him to build a monastery of Austin Friars outside the Florentine gate of San Gallo, a nobly designed structure, which was destroyed during the siege of Florence in 1530. It was from this building that Giuliano received the name of Sangallo, which was afterwards used by so many Italian architects. While still in the pay of Lorenzo, Giuliano visited Naples, and worked there for the king, who sent him back to Florence with many handsome presents of money, plate and antique sculpture, the last of which Giuliano presented to his patron Lorenzo. After Lorenzo's death in 1492, Giuliano visited Loreto, and built the dome of the church of the Madonna, in spite of serious difficulties arising from its defective piers, which were already built. In order to gain strength by means of a strong cement, Giuliano built his dome with pozzolana brought from Rome. Soon after this, at the invitation of Pope Alexander VI., Giuliano went to Rome, and designed the fine panelled ceiling of S. Maria Maggiore. He was also largely employed by Julius II., both for fortification walls round the castle of S. Angelo, and also -to build a palace adjoining the church of S. Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been titular cardinal. Giuliano was much disappointed that Bramante was preferred to himself as architect for the new basilica of St Peter, and this led to his returning to Florence, where he did much service as a military engineer and builder of fortressses during the war between Florence and Pisa. Soon after this Giuliano was recalled to Rome by Julius II., who had much need for his military talents both in Rome itself and also during his attack upon Bologna. For about eighteen months in 1514-1515 Giuliano acted as joint-architect to St Peter's together with Raphael, but owing to age and ill-health he resigned this office about two years before his death. II. ANTONIO DI SANGALLO (1455?-! 534) was the younger brother of Giuliano, and took from him the name of Sangallo. To a great extent he worked in partnership with his brother, but he also executed a number of independent works. As a military engineer he was as skilful as Giuliano, and carried out important works of walling and building fortresses at Arezzo, Montefiascone, Florence and Rome. His finest existing work as an architect is the church of S. Biagio at Montepulciano, in plan a Greek cross with central dome and two towers, much resembling, on a small scale, Bramante's design for St Peter's. He also built a palace in the same city, various churches and palaces at Monte Sansavino, and at Florence a range of monastic buildings for the Servile monks. Antonio retired early from the practice of his profession, and spent his latter years in farming. III. FRANCESCO DI SANGALLO (1493-1570), the son of Giuliano di Sangallo, was a pupil of Andrea Sanspvino, and worked chiefly as a sculptor. His works have for the most part but little merit — the finest being his noble effigy of Bishop Leonardo Bonafede, which lies on the pavement of the church of the Certosa, near Florence. It is simply treated, with many traces of the better taste of the i5th century. His other chief existing work is the group of the " Virgin and Child and St Anne," executed in 1526 for the altar of Or San Michele. IV. BASTIANO DI SANGALLO (1481-1551), sculptor and painter, was a nephew of Giuliano and Antonio. He is usually known as Aristotile, a nickname he received from his air of sententious gravity. He was at first a pupil of Perugino, but afterwards became a follower of Michelangelo. V. ANTONIO DI SANGALLO, the younger (14857-1546), another nephew of Giuliano, went while very young to Rome, and became a pupil of Bramante, of whose style he was afterwards a close follower. He lived and worked in Rome during the greater part of his life, and was much employed by several of the popes. His most perfect existing work is the brick and travertine church of S. Maria di Loreto, close by Trajan's column, a building remarkable for the great beauty of its proportions, and its noble effect produced with much simplicity. The lower order is square in plan, the next octagonal; and the whole is surmounted by a fine dome and lofty lantern. The lantern is, however1, a later addition. The interior is very impressive, considering its very moderate size. Antonio also carried out the lofty and well- designed church of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, which had been begun by Jacobo Sansovino. The east end of this church rises in a very stately way out of the bed of the Tiber, near the bridge of S. Angelo; the west end has been ruined by the addition of a later facade, but the interior is a noble example of a somewhat dull style. Great skill was shown in successfully building this large church, partly on the solid ground of the bank and partly on the shifting sand of the river bed. Antonio also built the Cappella Paolina and other parts of the Vatican, together with additions to the walls and forts of the Leonine City. His most ornate work is the lower part of the cortile of the Farnese palace, afterwards completed by Michelangelo, a very rich and well- proportioned specimen of the then favourite design, a series of arches between engaged columns supporting an entablature, an arrangement taken from the outside of the Colosseum. A palace in the Via Giulia built for himself still exists under the name of the Palazzo Sacchetti, much injured by alterations. Antonio also constructed the very deep and ingenious rock-cut well at Orvieto, formed with a double spiral staircase, like the well of Saladin in the citadel of Cairo. See Raviolo, Notizie sui lavori . . . dei nave Da San Gallo (Rome, 1860) ; G. Clausse, Les Sangallo (Paris, 1900-1901). (J. H. M.) SANGER, JOHN (1816-1889), English circus proprietor, was born at Chew Magna, Somerset, in 1816, the son of an old sailor who had turned showman. In 1845 he started with his brother George a conjuring exhibition at Birmingham. The venture was successful, and the brothers, who had been interested spectators of the equestrian performances at Astley's Amphi- theatre, London, then started touring the country with a circus entertainment consisting of a horse and pony and three or four human performers. This enterprise was a success from the beginning, and hi due course John and George Sanger became lessees of the Agricultural Hall, London, and there produced a large number of elaborate spectacles. In 1871 the Sangers leased Astley's where they gave an equestrian pantomime every winter, touring in the summer with a large circus. Subsequently the partnership was dissolved, each brother producing his own show. John Sanger died while touring, at Ipswich on the 22nd of August 1889, the business being continued by his son. SANGERHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the Gonna, near the south base of the Harz mountains, 30 m. W. of Halle, on the main line of railway Berlin-Nordhausen-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 12,439. Among many medieval buildings, the church of St Ulrich, one of the finest specimens of Romanesque architecture in Germany, and the church of St James, with a magnificent altar screen and interesting tombs and effigies, are particularly noticeable. There are a gymnasium, two hospitals dating from the i4th century and an old town-hall. The industries include the manufacture of sugar, furniture, machinery, boots and buttons. Brewing and brickmaking are also extensively carried on, and there is a considerable agricultural trade. Sangerhausen is one of the oldest towns in Thuringia, being mentioned hi a document of 991 as appertaining to the estates of the emperor. By marriage it passed to the landgrave of Thuringia, and after 1056 it formed for a while an independent country. Having been again part of Thuringia, it fell in 1249 to Meissen, and in 1291 to Brandenburg. In 1372 it passed to Saxony and formed a portion of that territory until 1815, when it was united with Prussia. See K. Meyer, Chronik des landratlichen Kreises Sangerhausen (Nordhausen, 1892); and F. Schmidt, Geschichte der Stoat Sanger- hausen (Sangerhausen, 1906). SAN GERMAN, a city of the department of Mayaguez, Porto Rico, in the south-western part of the island, about 10 m. S.S.E. of the city of Mayaguez. Pop. of the city (1899) 3954; of the municipal district 20,246, of whom 10,715 were of mixed races. The city is served by the American railway of Porto Rico. It is situated near the Guanajibo river, in a fertile agricultural region which produces sugar, coffee, fruit, cacao and tobacco. SAN GIMIGNANO— SAN JUAN In one of the public squares is a Dominican church built in IS38. San German was founded in 1517, was plundered by the French in 1528, was destroyed by corsairs in 1554, and was unsuccessfully attacked by the English in 1748. Until 1782 it was the seat of government of the western district of the island. It was made a city in 1877. SAN GIMIGNANO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Siena, 24 m. N.W. of Siena, at an elevation of 1089 ft. Pop. (1901) 4060 (town); 10,066 (commune). Being surrounded by its ancient walls, and retaining thirteen out of its original fifty towers, it is, with its predominantly Gothic architecture, a thoroughly medieval town in appearance. In the council chamber of the town-hall (i 288-1323) is a fresco by Lippo Memmi of the Madonna enthroned of 1317, copied closely from the similar fresco (the " Majestas ") by his master Simone di Martino in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena; there is also a curious frescoed frieze of 1291, with knights in armour. The museum in the same building contains pictures and other objects of art. The tower is the highest in the town (174 ft.), while the Torre dell' Orologio (167 ft.) close by marks the height beyond which private individuals might not build. In the same piazza is the Collegiata (the former cathedral) of the I2th century, enlarged after 1466 by Giuliano da Maiano, whose brother Benedetto erected the chapel of S. Fina from his plans in 1468, and carved the fine marble altar, the original painting and gilding of which are still preserved. The marble ciborium, a small reproduction of the splendid one in S. Domenico at Siena, is also by Benedetto. The beautiful frescoes wit* scenes from the life of the saint (a local saint who died at the age of fifteen) are the earliest work of Domenico Ghirlandaio, completed before 1475. There are also some frescoes of his cousin Bastiano Mainardi (d. 1513). The cathedral contains other 14th-century and early Renaissance paintings, the former including some Passion scenes, the only certain work of Barna da Siena, and some fine choir stalls. S. Agostino (1280-1298) contains a famous series of seventeen frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli, with scenes from the life of St Augustine (1463-1467). They have been to some extent restored. The altar of S. Bartoldus, by Benedetto da Maiano, is not unlike that in the Collegiata (1494). The town was independent in the i3th century, but in 1353, owing to the dissensions of the Salvucci (Ghibellines) and Ardinghelli (Guelphs), it fell into the hands of Florence. See R. Pantini, San Gimignano e Certaldo (Bergamo, 1905). SANGLI, a native state of India, in Bombay, ranking as one of the Southern Mahratta Jagirs. The territory is widely scattered among other native states and British districts. Area, iii2 sq. m. Pop. (1001) 226,128; estimated revenue, £10,000. The river Kistna waters part of the country, which is exceedingly fertile. Millet, rice, wheat and cotton are the chief crops, and cotton cloth is manufactured. The chief, whose title is Tatya Saheb Patwardhan, is a Brahman by caste. The town of Sangli, on the river Kistna, has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, n m. from Miraj Junction. Pop. (1901) 16,829. SANJO, SANETOMI, PRINCE (1837-1891), Japanese statesman, was one of the old court nobles (huge) of Japan, and figured prominently among the little band of reformers who accom- plished the overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the administration to the Mikado. He served as the first prime minister (daijo daijin) in the newly organized Meiji government. SAN JOS£, a city and the county-seat of Santa Clara county, California, U.S.A., situated in the coast ranges, about 46 m. S.E. of San Francisco and 8 m. S.E. of the southern end of San Francisco Bay, in thejheart of the beautiful Santa Clara Valley. Pop. (1890) 18,060; (1000) 21,500, of whom 4577 were foreign- born; (1910 census) 28,946; land area (1906), about 6 sq. m. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, which has car shops and terminal yards here. The city lies mainly on a gently rising plateau (altitude, oo to 1 25 ft.) between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers. It is a popular health resort. Besides St James and City Hall parks in the city, San Jos6 has Alum Rock Canyon Park, a tract of 1000 acres, with sixteen mineral springs, in Penitencia Canyon, 7 m. east. This park is connected by electric railway with the city. San Jos6 is the seat of the University of the Pacific (Methodist Episcopal), which was founded at Santa Clara in 1851, removed to its present site just outside the city in 1871, and had 358 students in all departments in 1909-1910; of the College of Notre Dame (1851; Roman Catholic), and of a State Normal School. Among charitable institutions are a Home of Benevolence (1878) for orphans and abandoned children, the Notre Dame Institute (for orphans) under the Sisters of Notre Dame, and the O'Connor Sanatorium. The Lick Observatory, opened in 1888 on the top of Mount Hamilton (4209 ft.) with a legacy of $700,000 left by James Lick (1796-1876) of San Francisco, is 26 m. distant by road, and the New Almaden quicksilver mine (the greatest producer in California and long among the greatest in the world) is about 14 m. south. The Santa Clara Valley has many vegetable and flower-seed farms; it is one of the most fertile of the fruit regions of California, prunes, grapes, peaches and apricots being produced in especial abundance. More than half the prune crop of California comes from Santa Clara county. In 1905 the total value of the factory product of San Jos6 was $6,388,445 (94-1 % more than in 1900) ; nearly one- half ($3,039,803) was the value of canned and preserved fruits and vegetables, $619,532 of planing-mill products, and $518,728 of malt liquors — much barley is grown in the Santa Clara Valley. San Jose de Guadalupe (after 1836 for a time " de Alvarado " in honour of Governor J. B. Alvarado) was founded in November 1777, and was the first Spanish pueblo of California. The mission of Santa Clara was founded in the vicinity in January 1777, and the mission of San Jose, about 12 m. north-east, in 1797. Near the original site of the former, in the town of Santa Clara (pop. 1900, 3650), a suburb of San Jose, now stands Santa Clara College (Jesuit; founded 1851, chartered 1855). Throughout the Spanish-Mexican period San Jose was a place of considerable importance. In 1840 its population was about 750. In the last years of Mexican dominion it was the most prominent of the northern settlements in which the Hispano-Californian element predominated over the new American element. The town was occupied by the forces of the United States in July 1846; and a skirmish with the natives occurred in its vicinity in January 1847. San Jose was the first capital of the state of California (1849-1851), and in 1850 was chartered as a city. SAN JOSE, or SAN Jos£ DE COSTA RICA, the capital of the republic of Costa Rica, and of the department of San Jose; in the central plateau of the country, 3868 ft. above sea-level, and on the transcontinental railway from the Pacific port of Puntarenas to the Atlantic port of Limon. Pop. (1908) about 26,500. San Jose is an episcopal see, the most populous city in Costa Rica, and the centre of a rich agricultural region; its climate is temperate, its water-supply pure and abundant. The city was founded in 1738, and became the capital in 1823 (see COSTA RICA: History). It is thoroughly modern in appearance, with macadamised streets lighted by electricity; its houses are one-storeyed so as to minimize the danger from earthquake. The suburbs consist chiefly of cane huts, tenanted by Indians and half-castes. The larger of two public gardens, the Morazan Park, contains a representative collection of the Costa Rican flora. The principal buildings are the cathedral, founded in the i8th century but restored after 1870, the hospital, govern- ment offices, institutes of law and medicine and of physical geography, training school for teachers, national bank, museum, library and barracks. The staple trade of San Jose is in coffee. SAN JUAN, an Andine province of Argentina, bounded N. and E. by La Rioja, S. by San Luis and Mendoza, and W. by, Chile, from which it is separated by the Andean Cordilleras. Area, 33,715 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimate) 99,955. It is roughly mountainous, and belongs to the closed drainage basin of western Argentina, centring in the province of Mendoza. It is traversed by several rivers, fed by the melting snows of the Andes and discharging into the swamps and lagoons in the S.E. part of the province, the largest of which are the Huanacache lagoons. The largest of these rivers are the Vermejo, Zanj6n or Jachal and San Juan. They are all used for irrigation. The climate is extremely hot and dry in summer, but the winter temperature is mild and pleasant. Agriculture is the principal occupation of its inhabitants, though the soil is generally sterile SAN JUAN— SANKT JOHANN and the rainfall uncertain and very light. Cereals are grown in some localities, and there are large vineyards where irrigation is possible, from which excellent wine is made. The province contains gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, coal and salt, but mining has never been developed to any extent. Pastoral interests are largely in feeding cattle for the Chilean markets, for which large areas of alfalfa are grown in the irrigated valleys of the Andes. The Argentine Great Western railway connects Mendoza with the capital of the province, and with the principal cities of the republic. The capital of the province is SAN JUAN, once called SAN JUAN DE LA FRONTERA (pop. 1904, estimate, 11,500), in a great bend of the San Juan river, 95 m. N. of Mendoza and 730 m. from Buenos Aires by rail. The great bend of the river affords easy irrigation, and the surrounding country is covered by a network of irrigating canals, even the paved streets of the town having streams of cool water running through them. The pubh'c buildings include a cathedral, three churches, and several schools, including the " Escuela Sarmiento, " a fine edifice with a Greek facade, named after President Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1886), who was a native of this city. There is also a botanical garden. San Juan was founded in 1561 by Juan Yufre, a companion of Captain Castillo, the founder of Mendoza. Both came from Chile, to which these outlying colonies were at first subject. From 1776 to 1820 it was governed from Mendoza, and then a popular uprising made the province independent and the town its capital. It has suffered severely from political disorders, and in 1894 was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The original settlement, now called Pueblo Viejo, 4 m. N., was abandoned on account of frequent inundations. The present town is situated about 2165 ft. above sea-level and is defended from inundations by an embankment above the town, called the Murallon. San Juan exports wine, and has a profitable trade with Chile over the Patos and Uspallata passes. SAN JUAN (SAN JUAN BAUTISTA DE PUERTO Rico), the capital and largest city of Porto Rico, on a small and narrow island which lies near the north coast, about 35 m. from the east end of Porto Rico, and is united to the mainland by the bridge of San Antonio. Pop. (1899) 32,048, including 5236 negroes and 11,529 of mixed races; (1910) 48,716. San Juan is served by the American railroad of Porto Rico and by steam- boats from New York and other ports. The harbour lies between the city and the mainland. It is capacious and landlocked, except on the north. A portion of it is 30 ft. in depth, and in 1907 Congress passed an Act for enlarging this area by dredging and especially for widening the entrance for large vessels; the work was virtually completed in 1909. San Juan is noteworthy for its fortifications and public buildings, and is the only fortified city of Porto Rico. On a bluff about 100 ft. high at the west end of the island and commanding the entrance to the harbour rise the battlements of Morro Castle, which was completed about 1584 and in which there is a lighthouse. The Castle of San Cristobal (begun early in the 1 7th century, completed in 1771) extends across the island in the rear portion of the city. A wall on each side of the island connects the two castles. The Canuelo is an abandoned fort on an islet opposite the Morro and less than 1000 yds. from it, the main channel lying between the two; and Forts San Antonio and San Geronimo protect the bridge of San Antonio. Inland rises a range of lofty mountains. Within the walls (which are 50-100 ft. high) the streets are narrow, smoothly paved with glazed brick and well cleaned. Princessa, Covadonga and Puerta de Tierra are lined with shady trees and occasionally widen into refreshing plazas. Between streets the space is packed closely with massive, flat-roofed brick and stone buildings, the walls of which, like the fortifications, are covered with plaster of various colours — green, blue, white, brown, pink, yellow and vermilion ; red tile roofs add to the effect. Near Morro Castle is the Casa Blanca, a palace on land which belonged to the family of Ponce de Leon. The tomb of Ponce de Leon is in the Cathedral, and in the Plaza de San Jos6 is a bronze statue (said to have been cast from cannon taken from the English in 1797) to his memory. In the Plaza Colon is a marble and granite monument to Columbus. In the church of San Francisco are some good paintings by Jos6 Campeche (1752-1809), a local artist. Other churches are the severely beautiful Santo Domingo, the Santa Ana, the Cathedral, with a rich shrine of Nuestra Senora de la Providencia, and the church of San Jos<5, which was formerly the Dominican convent. Among the prominent buildings and institutions are the custom- house, the executive mansion (formerly the palace of the governor- general) situated near the Casa Blanca, the archiepiscopal palace, a Seminary College, the City Hall, the Intendencia, the Post Office, the large barracks (Cuartel de Ballaja), the Penitentiary, the Military Hospital, the Presbyterian Hospital, two municipal hospitals (one surgical, one medical), a municipal bath-house and a small public library (the " Cervantes "). At Rio Piedras, not far from San Juan, is the Normal School and Agricultural School of Porto Rico. Other suburbs are Marina, with wharves and piers, Puerta de Tierra and on the mainland, Santurce, with a country club, the Union Club, a beautiful market-place, two charity schools and some attractive villas. Industries are of little importance. The sanitation of the city has been installed since the American occupation; sewers have been laid and a water-supply is piped from Rio Piedras. From Caparra, established in 1508 by Juan Ponce de Leon and now known as Pueblo Viejo, the Spanish settlement removed in 1520 to San Juan or San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico, nearer the coast. The new settlement became the capital of the eastern district of the island, to the whole of which the latter part of the name came to be applied. It was sacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1595, and captured by Admiral George Clifford, earl of Cumberland (1558-1605), in 1597, but was abandoned by the conquerors on account of an epidemic. It was unsuccess- fully attacked by the English under Sir Ralph Abercromby in April 1797; and it was bombarded by an American fleet under Rear- Admiral William T. Sampson on the I2th of May 1898 during the Spanish-American wart and was blockaded by the auxiliary cruiser " St Paul," which on the 22nd of June drove back into the harbour the Spanish destroyer " Terror " and the gunboat " Isabella II."; but the city was not occupied by the Americans until after the suspension -of hostilities. SAN JUAN (or HARO) ISLANDS, an archipelago (San Juan, Orcas, Shaw, Lopez, Blakely, Cypress, &c.) lying between Vancouver Island and the mainland of North America. These islands were for many years the subject of dispute between the British and the United States governments, and were finally assigned to the latter country by the arbitration of the emperor of Germany (on the 2ist of October 1872). Geographically the cluster certainly belongs to the mainland, from which it is separated by Rosario Strait, generally much under 50 fathoms in depth, while Haro Strait, separating it from Vancouver Island, has depths ranging from 100 to 190 fathoms. In 1873 the islands, formerly considered part of Whatcom county, Washing- ton, were made the separate county of San Juan. Of the total area of 200 sq. m., about 60 are in San Juan, 60 in Orcas and 30 in Lopez. See Papers relating to the Treaty of Washington, vol. v. (Washing- ton, 1872), and the map in Petermann's Mitteilungen (1873). SANKARA ACHARYA (c. 789-820), Hindu theologian, was born about the year 789, probably at the village of Kaladi in Malabar. He belonged to the Nambudri class of Brahmins. He wandered far and wide, and engaged in much philosophical and theological debate. He taught the existence of the Supreme God and founded the sect of the Smarta Brahmins. His great achievement was the perfecting of the Mimansa or Vedanta philosophy. So great were his learning and piety that he was regarded as an incarnation of Siva, and his works (commentaries on the Vedanta Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads) exercised a permanent influence on Hindu thought. He died at Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only 32 years of age. See Sri Sankaracharya, by C. N. Krishnasurami Aiyar and Pandit Sitanath Tattvabhushan (Madras, 1902). SANKT JOHANN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Saar, opposite Saarbrucken with which it is connected by three bridges. It is 49 m. N.E. from Metz and at the junction of lines from Trier, Bingerbriick and Zweibrucken. Pop. (1905) 24,140. Sankt Johann is the seat of extensive industries, the chief being the manufacture of railway plant and machinery, iron-founding, wire-drawing and brewing; its rapid industrial development is due mainly to the extensive railway system of which it is the centre. Sankt Johann obtains its name from a chapel erected here. From 1321 to 1859 it formed a single town with Saarbrucken, 152 SANKT POLTEN— SAN LUIS POTOSI and then was united to form one municipality with Saarbriicken and Malstatt-Burbach (united population, 90,000). SANKT POLTEN, an old town and episcopal see of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 14,510. It is situated on the Traisen, a tributary of the Danube, and contains an interesting old abbey church, founded in 1030 and restored in 1266 and again at the beginning of the i8th century. There are several religious educational institutions in the town, and a military academy for engineers. The industries include cotton spinning and milling, as well as the manufacture of iron and hardware, and small arms. Sankt Pollen was an inhabited place in the Roman period. An abbey dedicated to St Hippolytus was founded here in the gth century, around which the town developed. It was called Fanum Sancti Hippolyti, from which, by corruption, the actual name is derived. It was surrounded with walls and fortifications in the time of Rudolf of Habsburg, but these were demolished in modern times. See Lampel, Urkundenbuch des Chorherrenstifts Sankt Pollen (Wien, 1891-1901, 2 vols.). SAN LUCAR (or SANLUCAR DE BARRAMEDA), a fortified seaport of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz; 27 m. by sea from Cadiz, on the left bank of the Guadalquivir estuary, and on the Puerto de Santa Maria-San Lucar and Jerez de la Frontera-Bonanza railways. Pop. (1900) 23,883. The town is divided into two parts, Alta (" upper ") and Baja (" lower ") ; for it is built partly on the flat foreshore, partly on the rising ground to the south. The upper part is the older; it culminates in the ruins of a Moorish citadel. On the outskirts are many villas surrounded by pine; palm and orange groves, and often occupied in summer by families from Seville, who come to San Lucar for the excellent sea-bathing. The 14th-century church and the palace of the dukes of Medina Sidonia contain many valuable pictures. The hospital of St George was established by Henry VIII. of England in 1517 for English sailors. The Guadalquivir estuary is deep and sheltered, and lighted by four lighthouses. Bonanza, 2 m. by rail up the river, and on the same bank, is the headquarters of the shipping and fishing trades. It is named after a chapel dedicated here by the South American Company of Seville to the Virgin of Fair Weather (Virgen de la Bonanza). The fisheries and agricultural trade of San Lucar are considerable; there are flour mills in the town and a dynamite factory among the surrounding sandhills. Coal is imported from Great Britain, sulphur from France. The imports include sherry, manzanilla and other wines, salt, oats and fruit.. Inscriptions and ruins prove that San Lucar and Bonanza were Roman settlements, though the original names are unknown. San Lucar was captured from the Moors in 1 264, after an occupa- tion lasting more than five and a half centuries. After 1492 it became an important centre of trade with America. From this port Columbus sailed across the Atlantic in 1498, and Magellan started in 1519 to circumnavigate the world. SAN LUIS, a- province of Argentina, bounded N. by Rioja, E. by Cordoba, S. by the La Pampa territory and W. by Mendoza. Area, 28,535 sq. m. Pop. (1904, estimated) 97,458. San Luis belongs partly to the semi-arid pampa region, and partly to the mountainous region of the eastern Andes and Cordoba whose ranges terminate between the 33rd and 34th parallels. It is one of the least important of the Argentine provinces because of its aridity and lack of available resources. The rough northern districts, where an occasional stream affords irrigation for a fertile soil, are noted for a remarkably uniform, dry, mild and healthful climate. The Rio Quinto has its sources in these ranges; the Desaguadero, or Salado, forms its western boundary; and the Conlara flows northward among its broken ranges to the great salinas of western Cordoba. Only in the mountains are these streams available, as they soon become impregnated with saline matter on the plains. The southern part of the province is a great, arid, saline plain, practically uninhabitable. Agri- culture and grazing occupy some attention in the north, but are handicapped by lack of water. The mountains are rich in minerals, however, and a number of gold mines have been opened. The exports include cattle, hides, skins, wool and ostrich feathers. The capital is San Luis (pop. 1904, about 10,500) on the Arroyo Chorillos, a little S. of the cerro called Punta de los Venados, 374 m. by rail (the Argentine Great Western) W. of Rosario, and magnificently situated on a plateau 2490 ft. above sea-level. Next in importance is the town of Mercedes or Villa Mercedes (pop. 1904, about 6000) on the Rio Quinto, an important railway junction where the railways from Buenos Aires, Rosario, Mendoza and San Jose unite. San Luis, the capital, was founded in 1697 by Martin de Loyola and was for nearly 200 years only a frontier outpost. It suffered much in the civil wars of 1831-1865. SAN LUIS POTOSf, a central state of Mexico, bounded N. by Coahuila, E. by Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz, S. by Hidalgo, Queretaro and Guanajuato, and W. by Zacatecas. Area, 25,316 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 575,432. The state belongs wholly to the high plateau region, with the exception of a small area in the S.E. angle, where the tableland breaks down into the tropical valley of the Panuco. The surface is compara- tively level, with some low mountainous wooded ridges. The eastern part borders on the Sierra Madre Oriental, where there are extensive forests. The mean elevation is about 6000 ft., insuring a temperate climate. The state lies partly within the arid zone of the north, the southern half receiving a more liberal rainfall through the influence of the " northers " on the Gulf coast. The rainfall, however, is uncertain and the state is poorly provided with rivers. The soil is fertile and in favourable seasons large crops of wheat, Indian corn, beans and cotton are grown on the uplands. In the low tropical valleys, sugar, coffee, tobacco, peppers and fruit are staple products. Stock- raising is an important industry and hides, tallow and wool are exported. Fine cabinet and construction woods are also exported to a limited extent. At one time San Luis Potosi ranked among the leading mining provinces of Mexico, but the disorders following independence resulted in a great decline in that industry. The Catorce district has some of the richest silver mines in the country. Other well-known silver mining districts are Penon Blanco, Ramos and Guadalcazar. The development of Guadalcazar dates from 1620 and its ores yield gold, copper, zinc and bismuth, as well as silver. In the Ramos district, the Cocinera lode is said to have a total yield of over $60,000,000. Railway facilities are provided by the Mexican Central and Mexican National lines, the former crossing a corner of ,the state and having a branch from the capital to Tampico, and the latter passing through the state from N. to S. The capital is San Luis Potosi, and other towns, with their populations, are: Matehuala (13,101 in 1895), a mining town 20 m. E. by W. of Catorce, with which it is connected by a branch railway; Catorce (9547 in 1895), an important mining town no m. N. (direct) of San Luis PotosJ (capital) and 8 m. from its railway station on the Mexican National; at an elevation of 8780 ft., Santa Maria del Rio (8440 in 1900), 37 m. S.E. of the capital; Venado (5750 in 1895), 45 m. N. of the capital; Rio Verde (5759 in 1900), an agricultural centre with a national agriculture experiment station in its vicinity; Soledad Diez Gutierrez (5730 in 1895), near the capital. SAN LUIS POTOSf, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same name, near the head of the valley of the Rio Verde (a tributary of the Panuco), 215 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 61,019. The city is served by the Mexican Central and the Mexican National railways. It is built on a broad level space, laid out regularly with straight well-paved streets and shady plazas. The altitude of the city, 6168 ft. above sea-level, gives it a cool temperate climate, though the sun temperatures are high. The water-supply was formerly very deficient, but two artesian wells have been drilled to a depth of 450 ft. and furnish 30,000 gallons a day each, in addition to which a large dam 3 m. above the city has been built, having a storage capacity of 7,500,000 cubic meters (1,650,000,000 gallons), or 1 8 months' supply, which is used for irrigation and domestic purposes. The better class of residences are usually SAN MARINO— SAN MARTIN 153 two storeys high, and include many fine specimens of Spanish colonial architecture; but the suburbs consist chiefly of wretched hovels and stretch out over a large area. Among the more notable public buildings are the cathedral and government palace fronting on the Plaza Mayor, the latter conspicuous for its facade of rose-coloured stone; the churches of El Carmen, San Francisco and Guadalupe; the La Paz theatre, mint, penitentiary and the Institute Cientifico, in which law, medicine and science are taught. San Luis Potosi is an important railway and distributing centre, with a considerable trade in cattle, tallow, wool, hides and minerals. Its proximity to the port of Tampico, with which it was connected by a branch of the Mexican Central railway in 1885, has greatly increased its commercial importance, though in earlier days it was also one of the principal centres of the diligence and pack-train traffic of this part of Mexico. The city has cotton and woollen factories using modern machinery, and the smelting works of the Metal- urgica Mexicana company, an American enterprise. San Luis Potosi was founded in 1586. It was an important centre of colonial administration and played an important part in the civil wars and political disorders following Mexican independence. It was the seat of the Mexican government of Benito Juarez in 1863, but was soon afterwards captured by the French under Bazaine. It was recovered by Juarez in 1867, after the French had retired. SAN MARINO, a republic in northern Italy, 14 m. S.W. of Rimini by road. Pop. (1901) about 1600 (town); 9500 (whole territory). It is the smallest republic in the world (32 sq. m. in area). According to tradition, the republic was founded by St Marinus during the persecutions under Diocletian, while his companion, St Leo, founded the village of that name 7 m. to the S.W., with La Rocca its old castle, now a prison, in which the impostor Cagliostro died in 1795. The history of S. Marino begins with the pth century, the monastery of S. Marino having existed demonstrably since 885. In the loth century a communal constitution was established. The republic as a rule avoided the faction fights of the middle ages, but joined the Ghibellines and was interdicted by the pope in 1247-1249. After this it was protected by the Montefeltro family, later dukes of Urbino, and the papacy, and successfully resisted the attempts of Sigismondo Malatesta against its liberty. In 1503 it fell into the hands of Caesar Borgia, but soon regained its freedom. Other attacks failed, but civil discords in the meantime increased. Its independence was recognized in 1631 by the papacy. In 1739 Cardinal Alberoni attempted to deprive it of its independ- ence, but this was restored in 1 740 and was respected by Napoleon. Garibaldi entered it in 1849, on his retreat from Rome, and there disbanded his army. The town stands on the north end of a precipitous rock (2437 ft.) which bears the name of Monte Titano; each of the three summits is crowned by fortifications — that on the north by a castle, the other two by towers. The arms of the republic are three peaks, each crowned with a tower. There are traces of three different enceintes, of the I4th, isth and i6th centuries. The chief square, the Pianello, contains the new Palazzo del Governo in the Gothic style (1894) and a statue of Liberty (1876). The principal church (Pieve), in classical style, dates from 1826-1838, and contains the body of St Marinus. The old church, then demolished, is first mentioned in 1113, but was several times restored. S. Francesco has some paintings- by Niccolo Alunno of Foligno and other later artists, and a pretty loggia. The museum contains a few pictures of various schools and some Umbrian antiquities. Bartolommeo Borghesi, the epigraphist and numismatist, resided here from 1821 until his death in 1860. The Borgo at the base of the rock is a chiefly commercial village. The supreme power of the republic resides in the general assembly (Arringo) which meets twice a year. It is governed by two Capitani Reggenti, selected twice a year from the 60 life-members of the Great Council, which is composed of 20 representatives of the nobility,1 20 of the landowners and 20 of the citizens. They are assisted by a small committee of 12 of the 1 Not a few Italians possess titles of nobility of San Marino. Great Council. The available armed forces of the republic form a total of about 1200 men, all citizens able to bear arms being technically obliged to do so from the age of 16 to 60 years. San Marino issues its own postage-stamps, and makes thereby a considerable income. It also issues its own copper coinage, which circulates in Italy also; but Italian money is current for the higher values. Most of the republic falls within the diocese of Montefeltro, a small portion within that of Rimini. See C. Ricci, La Repubblica di San Marino (Bergamo, 1903). SAN MARTIN, JOSfi DE (1778-1850), South American soldier and statesman, was born at Yapeyu on the Uruguay river on the 25th of February 1778. His father was a captain in the Spanish army, and young San Martin was taken to Madrid and educated for a military career. He served in the Moorish wars and in the great struggle against Napoleon, and his dis- tinguished conduct at the battle of Baylen brought him the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1812 he offered his services to the government of Buenos Aires in the struggle for the independ- ence of Argentina. He was appointed early in 1814 to the command of the revolutionary army operating against the royalists on the borders of Upper Peru. But he soon resigned his command, realizing that for the permanent success of the revolutionary cause it was necessary first to oust the Spaniards from Chile and then to organize an expedition thence against the stronghold of Spanish power on Peru. With this end in view he secured his appointment to the governorship of the province of Cuyo, bordering on the Chilean Andes, and established him- self at Mendoza, where he prepared for the invasion of Chile. Assisted by Bernardo O'Higgins, he rallied the Chilean patriots who had fled across the mountains after their defeat at Rancagua; he enlisted the sympathies of the Argentine government, and after two years succeeded in raising a well-trained army of Chileans and Argentines and in collecting the material resources necessary for a crossing of the Andes. In January 1 8 1 7 he set out on his enterprise. By the swiftness of his movements and by a clever feint he evaded opposition, and he led his army, of about 3000 infantry and 1000 cavalry, together with artillery and large baggage trains, through a barren and difficult region, and over passes 13,000 ft. above sea-level. The victory of Chacabuco (Feb. 12, 1817) over the royalist army led to the re-establishment of a nationalist government at Santiago under Bernardo O'Higgins, as San Martin himself wished to prepare for the invasion of Peru; but in 1818 he took command of the Chilean forces against a fresh royalist army, and by his victory at the river Maipo in April finally secured the independence of Chile. This left him free to organize the expedition against Peru, and assisted by O'Higgins and the Argentine government, he pro- cured the necessary fleet and the army. He set out in August 1820, landed his forces for a short time at Pisco, where he tried to enter into negotiations with the viceroy of Lima, and then transported his army with the help of the fleet to a point on the coast a little way north of Lima. Here he spent several months of inaction, hoping that the demonstration of force and the influence of popular feeling would lead to a peaceful withdrawal of the Spaniards. In July 1821 the Spaniards evacuated Lima, San Martin entered the city, proclaimed the independence of Peru and assumed the reins of government with the title of Protector. His position, however, was far from secure. The royalist party, never having been decisively crushed, organized risings in the interior, and San Martin was embarrassed by the jealousy which his authority roused among the patriots, and by the rivalry of Bolivar, who had arrived with an army on the northern frontier of Peru. San Martin resigned his authority on the 2oth of September 1822 and left the country. He spent a short time in Chile and in Argentina, but his many enemies had embittered popular feeling against him, and constant attempts were made to involve him in political intrigues. Unable to live a peaceful private life, he was compelled to exile himself in Europe, where he lived, often in great poverty, till his death at Boulogne on the I7th of August 1850. San Martin did more than any man for the cause of independence jn the Argentine, Chile and Peru. He was not only an able soldier; in 154 SANMICHELE— SAN REMO the clearness with which he realized that the independence of each state could only be secured by the co-operation of all, and in the perseverance with which he carried his views into execution he showed himself a far-seeing and honest statesman. See W. Pilling, Emancipation of South America (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of San Martin; P. B. Figueroa, Diccio- nario biografico de Chile (Santiago, 1888) and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos biograficos de hombres notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886), both giving sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history. See also works on the period mentioned under CHILE: Bibliography. SANMICHELE, MICHELE (1484-1559), Italian architect, was born in San Michele near Verona. He learnt the elements of his profession from his father Giovanni and his uncle Barto- lommeo, who both practised as architects at Verona with much success. He went at an early age to Rome to study classic sculpture and architecture. Among his earliest works are the duomo of Montefiascone (an octagonal building surmounted with a cupola), the church of San Domenico at Orvieto, and several palaces at both places. He also executed a fine tomb in S. Domenico. He was no less distinguished as a military architect, and was much employed by the signoria of Venice, not only at home, but also in strengthening the fortifications of Corfu, Cyprus and Candia. One of Sanmichele's most graceful designs is the Cappella de' Peregrini in the church of S. Bernardino at Verona — square outside and circular within, of the Corinthian order. He built a great number of fine palaces at Verona, including those of Canossa, Bevilacqua and Pompei, as well as the graceful Ponte Nuovo. In 1527 Sanmichele began to transform the fortifications of Verona according to the newer system of corner bastions — a system for the advancement of which he did much valuable service. His last work, begun in 1559, was the round church of the Madonna di Campagna, i£ m. from Verona on the road to Venice. Like most other distin- guished architects of his time he wrote a work on classic archi- tecture, / Cinque Ordini dell' archiletlura, printed at Verona in 1735. See Ronzani and Luciolli, Fabbriche . . . di M. Sanmichele (Venice, 1832) ; and Selva, Elogio di Sanmichele (Rome, 1814). SAN MIGUEL, the capital of the department of San Miguel, Salvador; 80 m. E. by S. of San Salvador, near the right bank of the Rio Grande, and at the foot of the volcano of San Miguel or Jucuapa (7120 ft.). Pop. (1905) about 25,000. San Miguel is an important and attractive city, although the extensive swamps in the Rio Grande Valley render malaria common. It possesses several handsome churches, municipal buildings, law courts and two well-equipped hospitals. Near it are the ruins of an ancient Indian town. San Miguel has a flourishing trade in indigo, grain, rubber and cattle. Its port is La Union (q.v.). San Miguel was founded in 1530 by Spanish settlers, and became a city in 1586. Its fairs formerly attracted merchants from all parts of Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, and it is now third in size among the cities of the republic. SAN MIGUEL DE MAYUMO, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 40 m. N. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 14,919. In 1903, after the census had been taken, San Ildefonso (pop. 5326) was annexed to San Miguel. It has a cool and very healthy climate, and commands a beautiful view of the surrounding country. The soil is very fertile, and many of the inhabitants have acquired much wealth from the cultiva- tion of rice. Sugar-cane, Indian corn and cotton are also produced in abundance, and cattle are raised. Near the town are iron mines and quarries of limestone, and on the neighbouring mountains are forests containing valuable hardwood timber. About 8 m. N.E. are the medicinal springs of Sibul, to which large numbers of patients from the neighbouring provinces come. The San Miguel river, which flows near, affords a means of transportation, and the town has considerable commerce. Some beautiful furniture is made out of the hardwood from the mountains, and cotton fabrics are woven in considerable quantities by the women. The principal language is Tagalog. The chief buildings were destroyed in 1901 in a fire started by a band of thieves. SAN MINIATO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, 26 m. W. by S. of Florence by the railway to Pisa, 512 ft. above sea-level, on a hill 2 m. S. of the railway. Pop. (1901) 4421 (town); 20,242 (commune). Its cathedral dates from the icth century. It was remodelled in 1488, and has a facade decorated with disks of majolica. It manufactures glass, olive oil, leather and hats. It has a castle of the emperor Frederick I., the residence of the imperial governors of Tuscany from 1226 to 1286, and from them bears the name of San Miniato al Tedesco. SANNAZARO, JACOPO (1458-1530), Italian poet of the Renaissance, was born in 1458 at Naples of a noble family, said to have been of Spanish origin, which had its seat at San Nazaro near Pavia. His father died during the boyhood of Jacopo, who was brought up at Nocera Inferiore. He afterwards studied at Naples under Giovanni Pontanus, when, according to the fashion of the time, he assumed the name Actius Syncerus, by which he is occasionally referred to. After the death of his mother he went abroad — driven, we are told, by the pangs of despised love for a certain Carmosina, whom he has celebrated in his verse under various names; but of the details of- his travels nothing is recorded. On his return he speedily achieved fame as a poet and place as a courtier, receiving from Frederick III. as a country residence the Villa Mergillina near Naples. When his patron was compelled to take refuge in France in 1501 he was accompanied by Sannazaro, who did not return to Italy till after his death (1504). The later years of the poet seem to have been spent at Naples. He died on the 27th of April 1530. The Arcadia of Sannazaro, begun in early life and published in 1504, is a somewhat affected and insipid Italian pastoral, in which in alternate prose and verse the scenes and occupations of pastoral life are described. See Scherillo's edition (Turin, 1888). His now seldom read Latin poem De partu Virginis, which gained for him the name of the " Christian Virgil," appeared in 1526, and his collected Sonetti e canzoni in 1530. SAN NICOLAS DE LOS ARROYOS, a town and river port of Argentina, in the province of Buenos Aires, on the W. bank of the Parani, 150 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate), 18,000. It is a flourishing commercial town, and a port of call both for river and ocean-going steamers of medium tonnage. It is a station on the Buenos Aires & Rosario, and the terminus of a branch from Pergamino of the Central Argentine railway, and exports wheat, flour, wool and frozen mutton. The town is the judicial centre for the northern district of Buenos Aires. San Nicolas was founded in 1749 by Jose de Aguillar on lands given for that purpose by his wife (nee Ugarte). Its growth was very slow until near the end of the i gth century. SAN PABLO, a town of the province of Laguna, Luzon, Philippine Islands, g§ m. S. of Laguna de Bay and about 35 m. S.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 22,612. It is an important road centre, and in the vicinity are five small mountain lakes. Coco- nut palms grow in great abundance in the town and vicinity, and copra is the principal product; hemp and, to a less degree, rice, are grown here. The language is Tagalog. SANQUHAR, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1379. It is situated on the Nith, 26 m. N.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South -Western railway. It became a burgh of barony in 1484 and a royal burgh in 1596, and was the scene of the exhibition of the Covenanters' Declara- tion, attached to the market cross in 1680 by Richard Cameron and in 1685 by James Renwick. The industries include coal- mining and the making of bricks and tiles, spades and shovels. The coal-field, measuring 7 m. long by 2j m. broad, is the most extensive in the shire and is the main source of supply for Dumfries and other towns. The cattle and sheep fairs are important, and an agricultural show is held every May. Sanquhar Castle, on a hill overlooking the Nith, once belonged to the Crichtons, ancestors of the marquess of Bute, but is now a ruin. Eliock House, in the parish, was the birthplace of James (" the Admirable ") Crichton in 1560. SAN REMO, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Porto Maurizio, on the Riviera di Ponente, 9! m. E. of Venti- miglia by rail, and 84 m. S.W. of Genoa. Pop. (1901) 17,114 (town); 20,027 (commune). Climbing the slope of a steep hill SAN SALVADOR— SAN SEVERING it looks south over a small bay, and, protected towards the north by hills rising gradually from 500 to 8000 ft., it is in climate one of the most favoured places on the whole coast, a fact which accounts for the great reputation as a winter resort which it has enjoyed since 1861. The older town, with its narrow steep streets and lofty sombre houses protected against earthquakes by arches connecting them, contrasts with the new visitors' town, containing all the public buildings, which has grown up at the foot of the hill. The fort of S. Tecla protects the small harbour, sheltered by its sickle-shaped mole, 1300 ft. long. The promenade of San Remo is the Corso dell' Imperatrice, running from the main street, the Via Vittorio Emanuele, along the coast to the Giardino dell' Imperatrice; it is a broad road shaded by palm-trees, and was, like the garden, constructed at the expense of the empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (d. 1880). The Villa Thiem has a valuable picture-gallery, containing for the most part examples of the great 17th-century masters of the Netherlands. Besides the Gothic ex-cathedral of San Siro, the white-domed church of the Madonna della Costa, at the top of the old town, may be mentioned. In front of it is a large hospital. On the east of the harbour, the promenade along the coast is called the Passeggiata Imperatore Federico in memory of the German emperor Frederick, whose visit to the town in 1887-1888 greatly increased its repute as a winter resort. Flowers, especially roses and carnations, are extensively grown for export, and olives, lemons and palms are also cultivated. San Remo appears to have been dependent on Genoa in its early days, but became independent in 1361. In 1544 the town was attacked by Barbarossa, and in 1625 by the French and Savoyards. The Genoese, against whose encroachments it had long defended its independence, subjugated it in 1753; in 1797 it was incorporated in the Ligurian republic, and in 1814 passed to Piedmont. SAN SALVADOR, the capital of the republic of Salvador; situated in the valley of Las Hamacas, on the river Asalguate, at an altitude of 2115 ft., and 30 m. inland from the Pacific. Pop. (1905) about 60,000. San Salvador is connected by rail with Santa Ana on the north-west and with the Pacific ports of La Libertad and Acajutla. In addition to the government offices, its buildings include a handsome university, a wooden cathedral, a national theatre, an academy of science and litera- ture, a chamber of commerce, and astronomical observatory and a number of hospitals and charitable institutions. There are two large parks and an excellent botanical garden. In the Plaza Morazan, the largest of many shady squares, is a handsome bronze and marble monument to the last president of united Central America, from whom the plaza takes its name. San Salvador is the only city in the republic which has important manufactures; these include the production of soap, candles, ice, shawls and scarves of silk, cotton cloth, cigars, flour and spirits. The city is admirably policed, has an abundant water supply, and can in many respects compare favourably with the smaller provincial capitals of Europe and America. It was founded by Don Jorge de Alvarado in 1528, at a spot near the present site, to which it was transferred in 1539. Except for the year 1830-1840 it has been the capital of the republic since 1834. It was temporarily ruined by earthquakes in 1854 and 1873- SANS-CULOTTES (French for " without knee-breeches "), the term originally given during the early years of the French Revolution to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the Revolutionary army, and later applied generally to the ultra- democrats of the Revolution. They were for the most part men of the poorer classes, or leaders of the populace, but during the Terror public functionaries and persons of good education styled themselves citoyens sans-culolles. The distinctive costume of the typical sans-culotte was the panlalon (long trousers) — in place of the culottes worn by the upper classes — the carmagnole (short-skirted coat), the red cap of liberty and sabots (wooden shoes). The influence of the Sans-culottes ceased with the reaction that followed the fall of Robespierre (July 1794), and the name itself was proscribed. In the Republican Calendar the complementary days at the end of the year were at first called Sans-culottides; this name was, however, suppressed by the Convention when the constitution of the year III. (1795) was adopted, that of jours complementaires being substituted. SAN SEBASTIAN (Basque Iruchulo), a seaport and the capital of the Spanish province of Guipuzcoa, on the Bay of Biscay, and on the Northern railway from Madrid to France. Pop. (1900) 37,812. In 1886 San Sebastian became the summer residence of the court. The influx of visitors, attracted by the presence of the royal family, by the prolonged local festivities, the bull-fights and the bathing, increases the number of the inhabitants in summer to about 50,000. The city occupies a narrow sandy peninsula, which terminates on the northern or seaward side in a lofty mass of sandstone, Monte Urgull; it is flanked on the east by tHe estuary of the river Urumea, on the west by the broad bay of La Concha. The old town, rebuilt after the fire of 1813, lies partly at the foot of Monte Urgull, partly on its lower slopes. Until 1863 it was enclosed by walls and ramparts, and a strong fort, the Castillo de la Mola, still crowns the heights of Urgull. There are also batteries and redoubts facing landward and seaward below this fort; but the other defences have been either razed or dismantled. The Alameda, one of many fine avenues, was laid out on the site of the chief landward wall, and separates the old town from the new— in which the houses are uniformly modern, and built in straight streets or regular series of squares. The bay of La. Concha has a broad sandy shore, the Playa de Banos, admirable for bathing and sheltered from sea-winds by the rocky islet of Santa Clara. Its centre is faced by the casino, a handsome building, and the summer palace and park of Miramar occupy the rising ground towards its western extremity. The other noteworthy buildings are the bull-ring, capable of seating 10,000 spectators, the theatre, fine provincial and municipal halls, barracks, a hospital, a Jesuit college, the American International School for girls, and many other schools. There are numerous breweries, saw and flour mills, and manufactures of preserves, soap, candles, glass and paper, especially in the busy suburb that has sprung up on the right bank of the Urumea. The fisheries are important. The harbour consists of three artificial basins, opening into La Concha Bay, and situated in the midst of the old town; it is chiefly frequented by coasting and fishing vessels, and cannot accommodate large ships. From its position near the frontier San Sebastian was long a first-class fortress, and has sustained many sieges. The last and most memorable was in August 1813, when the allied British, Portuguese and Spanish armies under Lord Wellington captured the city from the French, and then sacked and burned it. SAN SEPOLCRO, or BORGO S. SEPOLCRO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Arezzo, from which it is 28 m. N.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 4537 (town); 9077 (com- mune). It is situated 1083 ft. above sea-level, on the Tiber. It was the birthplace of Piero della Francesca (1420-1492) and of Raffaello del Colle (1490-1540), a pupil of Raphael. The Romanesque cathedral and the picture-gallery contain works by both these artists. SAN SEVERING (anc. Septempeda), a town and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Macerata, from which it is 18 m. W. by S. by rail. Pop. (1901) 3227 (town); 14,932 (commune). The lower town is situated 781 ft. above sea-level, and contains the new cathedral of S. Agostino, with a fine altar-piece by Pinturicchio (1489). The Palazzo Comunale has some interesting pictures by artists of the Marches. Lorenzo and Giacomo Salimbeni da San Severino, who painted an important series of frescoes in the oratory of S. Giovanni Battista at Urbino in 1416, were natives of the town. So was also the later master Lorenzo di Maestro Alessandro, of the end of the 1 5th century, whose pictures are mainly to be found in the Marches. The old cathedral of S. Severino is in the upper town (1129 ft. above sea-level); it contains frescoes by the two Salimbeni, while an altar-piece by Niccolo Alunno of Foligno (1468) has been removed hence to the picture gallery. The ancient Septempeda lay i m. below the modern town, on the branch road which ran from Nuceria Camellaria, on the Via Flaminia; and here the road divided— one branch going to i56 SAN SEVERO— SANSKRIT Ancona and the other through Tolentinum to Urbs Salvia and Firmum. No ruins of the old town exist, but a considerable number of inscriptions have been found, from which it may be gathered that it was a colonia. SAN SEVERO, a city in Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 17 m. N.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 28,550. San Severe lies at the foot of the spurs of Monte Gargano, 292 ft. above sea-level. It is the see of a bishop (since 1580), and has some remains of its old fortifications. San Severo dates from the middle ages. It was laid in ruins by Frederick II., and in 1053 was the scene of a victory by Robert Guiscard over the papal troops under Leo IX. In 1799 the town was taken by the French and again almost entirely destroyed. The over- lordship was held in succession by the Benedictines of the abbey of Torre Maggiore, the Knights Templars, the crown of Naples and the Sangro family (commendatories of Torre Maggiore). In 1627, 1828 and 1851 the town suffered from earthquakes. SAN-SHUI, a treaty port in the province of Kwang-tung, China, on the left bank of the West river, 99 m. from Canton, opened to foreign trade in 1897. Pop. about 5000. Its position is at the junction of the North and West rivers, and it is favourably situated as a distributing centre for foreign goods. Two lines of steamers converge at San-shui, from Canton and Hong-Kong respectively. The town is surrounded by a handsome wall built in the i6th century, but within this rampart the houses are mean. The foreign trade shows little signs of expansion. In 1902 the net foreign imports amounted in value to £474,175, and in 1904 to only £380,000, while the exports during the same two years amounted to £225,000 and £317,000 respectively. The direct foreign trade in 1908 was £507,827. There is a large junk traffic, and the local likin station is one of the richest in the province. SANSKRIT, the name applied by Hindu scholars to the ancient literary language of India. The word saipskrita is the past participle of the verb kar(kr), " to make " (cognate with Latin creo), with the preposition sam, "together" (cog. &fia, i/i6s, Eng. " same "), and has probably to be taken here in the sense of " completely formed " or " accurately made, polished, refined " — some noun meaning " speech " (esp. bhasha) being either expressed or understood with it. The term was, doubtless, originally adopted by native grammarians to distinguish the literary language from the uncultivated popular dialects — the forerunners of the modern vernaculars of northern India — which had developed side by side with it, and which were called (from the same root kar, but with a different preposition) Prdkrita, i.e. either " derived " or " natural, common " forms of speech. This designation of the literary idiom, being intended to imply a language regulated by conventional rules, also involves a distinction between the grammatically fixed language of Brah- manical India and an earlier, less settled, phase of the same language exhibited in the Vedic writings. For convenience the Vedic language is, however, usually included in the term, and scholars generally distinguish between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. I. SANSKRIT LANGUAGE The Sanskrit language, with its old and modern descendants, represents the easternmost branch of the great Indo-Germanic, or Aryan, stock of speech. Philological research has clearly established the fact that the Indo-Aryans must originally have immigrated into India from the north-west. In the oldest literary documents handed down by them their gradual advance can indeed be traced from the slopes of eastern Kabulistan down to the land of the five rivers (Punjab), and thence to the plains of the Yamuna (Jumna) and Ganga (Ganges). Numerous special coincidences, both of language and mythology, between the Vedic Aryans and the peoples of Iran also show that these two members of the Indo-Germanic family must have remained in close connexion for some considerable period after the others had separated from them. The origin of comparative philology dates from the time when European scholars became accurately acquainted with the ancient language of India. Before that time classical scholars had been unable to determine the true relations between the then known languages of our stock. This fact alone shows the importance of Sanskrit for comparative research. Though its value in this respect has perhaps at times been overrated, it may still be considered the eldest daughter of the old mother- tongue. Indeed, so far as direct documentary evidence goes, it may be said to be the only surviving daughter; for none of the other six principal members of the family have left any literary monuments, and their original features have to be reproduced, as best they can, from the materials supplied by their own daughter languages: such is the case as regards the Iranic, Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, Teutonic and Letto-Slavic languages. To the Sanskrit the antiquity and extent of its literary docu- ments, the transparency of its grammatical structure, the comparatively primitive state of its accent system, and the thorough grammatical treatment it has early received at the hand of native scholars must ever secure the foremost place in the comparative study of Indo-Germanic speech. The Sanskrit alphabet consists of the following sounds: — (o) Fourteen vowels, viz: Ten simple vowels : a, a, i, i, u, u, r., f, I (I) ; and Alphabet Four diphthongs : e, di, 6, au. (b) Thirty-three consonants, viz. : Five series of mutes and nasals : guttural : k kh g gh A palatal : c ch i jh n lingual : f ffc • n 9 dental : t ih d dh n labial: p ph b bh m; Four semivowels : y r Iv (w) Three sibijants: palatal £ ({), lingual .j (sh), dental s; and A soft aspirate: n. (c) Three unoriginal sounds, viz. visarga (h), a hard aspirate, standing mostly for original s or r; and two nasal sounds of less close contact than the mute-nasals, viz. anusvdra (r/i) and anundsika (m). As regards the vowels, a prominent feature of the language is the prevalence of o-sounds, these being about twice as frequent as all the others, including diphthongs taken together (Whitney). The absence of the short vowels e and 6 from the Sanskrit alpha- bet, and the fact that Sanskrit shows the o-vowel where other vowels appear in other languages — e.g. bharanlam = QepovTa, ferentem; janas=ytvm, genus — were formerly considered as strong evidence in favour of the more primitive state of the Sanskrit vowel system as compared with that of the sister languages. Recent research has, however, shown pretty conclusively from certain indications in the Sanskrit language itself that the latter must at one time have possessed the same, or very nearly the same, three vowel-sounds, and that the differentiation of the original a-sound must, therefore, have taken place before the separation ot the languages. Thus, Sans, carati, he walks, would seem to require an original kereti (Gr. irtXei = queleti, Lat. colit), as otherwise the guttural k could not have changed to the palatal c (see below) ; and similarly Sans, jdnu, knee, seems to stand iorgenu (Lat. genu,Gr.ybvv). Not impossibly, however, this prevalence of pure a-sounds in Sanskrit may from the very beginning have been a mere theoretical or graphic feature of the language, the difference of pronunciation having not yet been pronounced enough for the early grammarians to have felt it necessary to clearly distinguish between the different shades of o-sounds. The vowels e and o, though apparently simple sounds, are classed as diphthongs, being contracted from original di and au respectively, and liable to be treated as such in the phonetic modifications they have to undergo before any vowel except o. As regards the consonants, two of the five series of mutes, the palatal and lingual series, are of secondary Con- (the one of Indo-Iranian, the other of purely Indian) sonants. growth. ' The palatals are, as a rule, derived from original gutturals, the modification being generally due to the influence of a neighbouring palatal sound i or y, or e (d). The surd aspirate ch, in words of Indo- Germanic origin, almost invariably goes back to original sk: e.g. chid- (chind-) — scindo, irxifu: chaya = oxiA (O.K. scin, shine); Sans. gacchati=p&oK(i. The palatal sibilant S (pronounced sh) likewise originated from a guttural mute k, but one of somewhat different phonetic value from that represented by Sanskrit k or c. The latter, usually designated by k* (or q), is frequently liable to labialization (or dentalization) in Greek, probably owing to an original pronunciation kw (qu) : e.g. katara = ir6rtpos, uter; while the Former (&') shows invariably K in Greek, and a sibilant in the Letto-Slavic and the Indo-Iranian languages: e.g. fvan ($un) = K<>wv (KW), canis, Ger. Hund; dasan = Sixo, decent, Goth, taihun. LANGUAGE] SANSKRIT '57 Declen- sion. The non-original nature of the palatals betrays itself even in Sanskrit by their inability to occur at the end of a word — e.g. ace. vacant = Lat. vocem, but nom. vak = vox— and by otherwise frequently reverting to the guttural state. The linguals differ in pronunciation from the dentals in their being uttered with the tip of the tongue turned up to the dome of the palate, while in the utterance of the dentals it is pressed against the upper teeth, not against the upper gums as is done in the English dentals, which to Hindus sound more like their own linguals. The latter, when occurring in words of Aryan origin, are, as a rule, modifications of original dentals, usually accompanied by the loss of an r or other adjoining consonant; but more commonly they occur in words of foreign, probably non-Aryan, origin. Of regular occurrence in the language, however, is the change of dental n into lingual n, and of dental i into lingual 3, when preceded in the same word by certain other letters. The combination k$ seems sometimes to stand for ks (? kst) as in Sans, aksa, Gr. a&v, axle; Sans, dakshina, Gr. 5f£ios (but Lat. dexter) ; sometimes for kt, e.g. Sans, kshiti, Gr. KTia. In the Rik forms in a outnumber those in au more than eight times; whilst in the Atharvan, on the contrary, those in au (the only ending used in the classical language) occur five times as often as those in a. 5. a and ena (end) for the instrumental singular masc. and neut., as ddnd, danena = dono. The ending ena is the one invariably used in the later language. It is likewise the usual form in the Veda; but in a number of cases it shows a final long vowel which, though it may be entirely due to metrical requirements, is more probably a relic of the normal instrumental ending a, preserved for prosodic reasons. For the simple ending d, as compared with that in ena, Professor Lanman makes out a proportion of about I to 9 in the Verb system. Rigveda (altogether 1 14 cases) ; while in the peculiar parts of the Atharvan he finds only 1 1 cases. 6. am and anam for the genitive plural, e.g. (asvdm), asvdnam = 1iriruv, equum (equorum). The form with inserted nasal (doubt- less for anam, as in Zend aSpandm), which is exclusively used in the later language, is also the prevailing one in the Rik. There are, however, a few genitives of a-stems in original dm (for a-dm), which also appear in Zend, Professor Lanman enumerating a dozen in- stances, some of which are, however, doubtful, while others are merely conjectural. The Sanskrit verb system resembles that of the Greek in variety and completeness. While the Greek excels in nicety and definite- ness of modal distinction, the Sanskrit surpasses it in primitiveness and transparency of formation. In this part of the grammatical system there is, however, an even greater difference than in the noun inflection between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. While the former shows, upon the whole, the full complement of modal forms exhibited by the Greek, the later language has practically discarded the subjunctive mood. Tlie Indo-Aryans never succeeded in working out a clear formative dis- tinction between the subjunctive and indicative moods; and, their syntactic requirements becoming more and more limited, they at last contented themselves, for modal expression, with a present optative and imperative, in addition to the indicative tense-forms, and a little-used aorist optative with a special " precative " or " benedictive " meaning attached to it. Another part of the verb in which the later language differs widely from Vedic usage is the infinitive. The language of the old hymns shows a considerable variety of case-forms of verbal abstract nouns with the function of infinitives, a certain number of which can still be traced back to the parent language, as, for instance, such dative forms as jit»-ase = viv-ere; sdh-adhyai = txfa9ai.; dd'- 56n€vai; da' -vane = Sovvai. Further, ji-she, "to conquer," for ji-se, apparently an aorist infinitive with the dative ending (parallel to the radical forms, such as yudh-e, "to fight," dr.s'-6, "to see "), thus corresponding to the Greek aorist infinitive XDtrot (but cf. also Latin da-re, for dase, es-se, &c.). The classical Sanskrit, on the other hand, practically uses only one infinitive form, viz. the accusative of a verbal noun in tu, e.g. sthdtum, etum, corresponding to the Latin supinum datum, Hum. But, as in Latin another case, the ablative (datu), of the same abstract noun is utilized for a similar purpose, so the Vedic language makes two other cases do duty as infinitives, viz. the dative in lave (e.g. ddtave, and the an- omalous 6tavai) and the gen.-abl. in tos (datos). A prominent feature of the later Sanskrit syntax is the so-called gerund or indeclinable participle in tva, apparently the instrumental of a stem in ltd (prob- ably a derivative from that in tu), as well as the gerund in ya (or tya after a final short radical vowel) made from compound verbs. The old language knows not only such gerunds in tva, using them, however, very sparingly, but also corresponding dative forms in tvdya (yuktvdya) and the curious contracted forms in tm' (kr.tin, " to do "). And, besides those in ya and tya, it frequently uses forms with a final long vowel, as bhid-yd, i-tyd, thus showing the former to be shortened instrumentals of abstract nouns in » and ti. The Sanskrit verb, like the Greek, has two voices, active and middle, called, after their primary functions, parasmdi-pada, " word for another," and atmane-pada, " word for one's self." While in Greek the middle forms have to do duty also for the passive in all tenses except the^aorist and future, the Sanskrit, on the other hand, has developed for the passive a special present-stem in ya, the other tenses being supplied by the corresponding middle forms, with the exception of the third person singular aorist, for which a special form in i is usually assigned to the passive. The present-stem system is by far the most important part of the whole verb system, both on account of frequency of actual occur- rence and of its excellent state of preservation. It is with regard to the different ways of present-stem formation that the entire stock of assumed roots has been grouped by the native grammarians under ten different classes. These classes again naturally fall under two divisions or " conjugations," with this characteristic difference that the one (corresponding to Gr. conj. in a) retains the same stem (ending in a) throughout the present and imperfect, only lengthening the final vowel before terminations beginning with v or m (not final); while the other (corresponding to that in /ii) shows two different forms of the stem, a strong and a weak form, according as the accent falls on the stem-syllable or on the personal ending: e.g. 3 sing, bhdra-ti, $kpti — 2 pi. bhdra-tha, tpert: but 6-ti, tlai — i-thd, Zre (for irt) : i sing, str.no-mi, oripm/M — i pi. strnu-mds As several of the personal endings show a decided similarity to personal or demonstrative pronouns, it is highly probable that, as might indeed be a priori expected, all or most of them are of pro- nominal origin — though, owing to their exposed position and consequent decay, their original form and identity cannot now be determined with certainty. The active singular terminations, with the exception of the second person of the imperative, are unaccented and of comparatively light appearance; while those of the dual and plural, as well as the middle terminations, have the accent, being apparently too heavy to be supported by the stem-accent, either because, as Schleicher supposed, they are composed of two i58 SANSKRIT different pronominal elements, or otherwise. The treatment of the personal endings in the modifying, and presumably older, conjugation may thus be said somewhat to resemble that of enclitics in Greek. In the imperfect the present-stem is increased by the augment, consisting of a prefixed a. Here, as in the other tenses in which it appears, it has invariably the accent, as being the distinctive element (originally probably an independent demonstrative adverb " then ") for the expression of past time. This shifting of the word-accent seems to have contributed to the further reduction of the personal endings, and thus to have caused the formation of a new, or secondary, set of terminations which came to be appropriated for secondary tenses and mocds generally. As in Greek poetry, the augment is frequently omitted in Sanskrit. The mood-sign of the subjunctive is a, added to (the strong form of) the tense-stem. If the stem ends already in a, the latter becomes lengthened. As regards the personal terminations, some persons take the primary, others the secondary forms, while others again may take either the one or the other. The first singular active, however, takes ni instead of mi, to distinguish it from the indicative. But besides these forms, showing the mood-sign a, the subjunctive (both present and aorist) may take another form, without any distinctive modal sign, and with the secondary endings, being thus identical with the augmentless form of the preterite. The optative invariably takes the secondary endings, with some peculiar variations. In the active of the modifying conjugation its mood-sign is yd, affixed to the weak form of the stem : e.g. root as — syam=Lat. stem, sim (where Gr., from analogy to iarl, &c., shows irregularly the strong form of the stem, t'riv, for ka-ai-v. as in 1st sing, of verbs in u, it also has irregularly the primary ending, \fiiroim=S. rece-y-am) ; while in the o-conjugation and throughout the middle the mood-sign is J, probably a contraction of ya: e.g. Besides the ordinary perfect, made from a reduplicated stem, with distinction between strong (active singular) and weak forms, and a partly peculiar set of endings, the later language makes large use of a periphrastic perfect, consisting of the accusative of a feminine abstract noun in a (-dm) with the reduplicated perfect forms of the auxiliary verbs kar, " to do," or as (and occasionally bhu), " to be." Though more particularly resorted to for the derivative forms of conjugation — viz. the causative (including the so-called tenth conjugational class), the desiderative, intensive and denominative — this perfect-form is also commonly used with roots beginning with prosodically long vowels, as well as with a few other isolated roots. In the Rigveda this formation is quite un- known, and the Atharvan offers a single instance of it, from a causative verb, with the auxiliary kar. In the Vedic prose, on the other hand, it is rather frequent,1 and it is quite common in the later language. In addition to the ordinary participles, active and middle, of the reduplicated perfect — e.g. jajan-van, ytyov-us: bubudh-dnd, Ttrva-ntvo — there is a secondary participial formation, obtained by affixing the possessive suffix vat (vant) to the passive past parti- ciple: e.jf. kr.ta-vant, lit. " having (that which is) done." A second- ary participle of this kind occurs once in the Atharvaveda, and it is occasionally met with in the Brahmanas. In the later language, however, it not only is of rather frequent occurrence, but has assumed quite a new function, viz. that of a finite perfect-form; thus kr.tavan, kriavanlas, without any auxiliary verb, mean,' not " having done," but " he has done," " they have done." The original Indo-Germanic future-stem formation in sya, with primary endings-^-«.g. dasydti=&tlxrct (for iowtri) — is the ordinary tense-form both in Vedic and classical Sanskrit — a preterite of it, with a conditional force attached to it (dddsyat), being also common to all periods of the language. Side by side with this future, however, an analytic tense-form makes its appearance in the Brahmanas, obtaining wider currency in the later language. This periphrastic future is made by means of the nominative singular of a nomen agentis in tar (ddtar, nom. dd/a = Lat. dator), followed by the corresponding present forms of is. " to be " (data-'smi, as it were, daturus sum), with the exception of the third persons, which need no auxiliary, but take the respective nominatives of the noun. The aorist system is somewhat complicated, including as it does augment-preterites of various formations, viz. a radical aorist, sometimes with reduplicated stem — e.g. dsthdm=laTi]v: Srudhi =*X50i; ddudrot; an o-aorist (or thematic aorist) with or without reduplication — e.g. d ricas = ZXiires : dpaptam, cf. lire^vov; and several different forms of a sibilant-aorist. In the older Vedic language the radical aorist is far more common than the a-aorist, which becomes more frequently used later on. Of the different kinds of sibilant-aorists, the most common is the one which makes its stem by the addition of 5 to the root, either with or without a connecting vowel i in different roots: e.g. root j i — I sing, djdisham, I pi. djaishma; dkramisham, dkramishma. A limited number of roots take a double aorist-sign with inserted connecting vowel (sish for sis) — e.g. dyasisham (cf. scrip-sis-ti) ; whilst others — very rarely 1 It also shows occasionally other tense-forms than the perfect of the same periphrastic formation with kar. [LANGUAGE in the older but more numerously in the later language — make their aorist-stem by the addition of sa — e.g. ddikshas = ld«j;as. As regards the syntactic functions of the three preterites — the imperfect, perfect and aorist — the classical writers laake virtually no distinction between them, but use them quite indiscriminately. In the older language, on the other hand, the imperfect is chiefly used as a narrative tense, while the other two generally refer to a past action which is now complete — the aorist, however, more frequently to that which is only just done or completed. The perfect, owing doubtless to its reduplicative form, has also not infrequently the force of an iterative, or intensive, present. The Sanskrit, like the Greek, shows at all times a considerable power and facility of noun-composition. But, while in the older language, as well as in the earlier literary products of the Won/m classical period, such combinations rarely exceed the /ormatloa limits compatible with the general economy of inflectional speech, during the later, artificial period of the language they gradually become more and more excessive, both in size and fre- quency of use, till at last they absorb almost the entire range of syntactic construction. One of the most striking features of Sanskrit word-formation is that regular interchange of light and strong vowel-sounds, usually designated by the native terms of guna (quality) and vriddhi (in- crease). The phonetic process implied in these terms consists in the raising, under certain conditions, of a radical or thematic light vowel i, u, r, I, by means of an inserted a-sound, to the diphthongal (guna) sounds di (Sans, e), du (Sans, d), and the combination ar and al respectively, and, by a repetition of the same process, to the (vriddhi) sounds di, du, ar, and al respectively. Thus from root vid, " to know," we have vcda, " knowledge," and therefrom vdidika; from yuj, yoga, yaugika. While the interchange of the former kind, due mainly to accentual causes, was undoubtedly a common feature of Indo-Germanic speech, the latter, or vriddhi-change, which chiefly occurs in secondary stems, is probably a later develop- ment. Moreover, there can be no doubt that the vriddhi-vowels are really due to what the term implies, viz. to a process of " in- crement," or vowel-raising. The same used to be universally as- sumed by comparative philologists as regards the relation between the guna-sounds ai (e) and du (d) and the respective simple i- and M-sounds. According to a more recent theory, however, which has been very generally accepted, we have rather to look upon the heavier vowels as the original, and upon the lighter vowels as the later sounds, produced through the absence of stress and pitch. The grounds on which this theory is recommended are those of logical consistency. In the analogous cases of interchange between r and ar, as well as { and al, most scholars have indeed been wont to regard the syllabic r, and / as weakened from original ar and al, while the native grammarians represent the latter as produced from the former by increment. Similarly the verb as (es), " to be," loses its vowel wherever the radical syllable is unaccented, e.g. dsti, Lat. est — smds, s(u)mus; opt. sydm, Lat. siem (sim). On the strength of these analogous cases of vowel-modification we are, therefore, to accept some such equation as this : — dsmi: smds = Sipnonai : iSp(a)xov = XeiTra: Xiirew = emi (elm): imds (Zju«< for IpAv) = tvyw : vyt!i> = dohmi ( I milk) : duhmds. Acquiescence, in this equation would seem to involve at, least one important admission, viz. that original root-syllables contained no simple i- and w-yowels, except as the second element of the diphthongs ai, ei, oi; au, eu, ou. We ought no longer to speak of the roots vid, " to know," dik, " to show, to bid, dhueh, " to milk," yug, " to join," but of veid, deik, dhaugh or dheugh, yeug, &c. Nay, as the same law would apply with equal force to suffixal vowels, the suffix nu would have to be called nau or neu; and, in explaining, for instance, the irregularly formed fnUvvm, delnwntv, we might say that, by the affixion of vtv to the root ie«, the present- stem &.iK»tvnta((.), — the subsequent modifications in the radical and formative syllables being due to the effects of " analogy " (cf. G. Meyer, Griech. Gramm., § 487). Now, if there be any truth in the " agglutination " theory, according to which the radical and formative elements of Indo-Germanic speech were at one time independent words, we would have to be prepared for a pretty liberal allowance, to the parent language, of diphthongal mono- syllables such as deik neu, while simple combinations such as dik nu could only spring up after separate syllable-words had become united by the force of a common accent. But, whether the agglu- tinationists be right or wrong, a theory involving the priority of the diphthongal over the simple sounds can hardly be said to be one of great prima facie probability; and one may well ask whether the requirements of logical consistency might not be satisfied in some other, less improbable, way. Now, the analogous cases which have called forth this theory turn upon the loss of a radical or suffixal a (e), occasioned by the shifting of the word-accent to some other syllable, e.g. ace. mdtdram, instr. matra; irtrojuoi, iflrAjuTjK : Jip/to/iai, Up(a)mv: dsmi, smds. Might we not then assume that at an early stage of noun and verb inflection, through the giving way, under certain conditions, of the stem-a (e), the habit of stem-gradation, as an element of inflection, LITERATURE] SANSKRIT lion. came to establish itself and ultimately to extend its sphere over stems with »- and K-vowels, but that, on meeting here with more resistance1 than in the a (e)-vowel, the stem-gradation then took the shape of a raising of the simple vowel, in the " strong " cases and verb-forms, by that same a-element which constituted the distinctive element of those cases in the other variable stems? In this way the above equation would still hold good, and the corre- sponding vowel-grades, though of somewhat different genesis, would yet be strictly analogous. At all events in the opinion of the present writer, the last word has not yet been said on the important point of Indo-Germanic vowel-gradation. The accent of Sanskrit words is marked only in the more important Vedic texts, different systems of notation being used in different works. Our knowledge of the later accentuation of words is entirely derived from the statements of gram- marians. As in Greek, there are three accents, the udatta (" raised," i.e. acute), the anudatta (" not raised," i.e. grave), and the svarila (" sounded, modulated," i.e. circumflex). The last is a combination of the two others, its proper use being confined almost entirely to a vowel preceded by a semivowel y or », repre- senting an original acuted vowel. Hindu scholars, however, also include in this term the accent of a grave syllable preceded by an acuted syllable, and itself followed by a grave. The Sanskrit and Greek accentuations present numerous coinci- dences. Although the Greek rule, confining the accent within the last three syllables, has frequently obliterated the original likeness, the old features may often be traced through the later forms. Thus, though augmented verb-forms in Greek cannot always have the accent on the augment as in Sanskrit, they have it invariably as little removed from it as the accentual restrictions will allow ; e.g. dbharam, &t>epov: dbharama, iipofitv : dbharamahi, iepont8a. The most striking coincidence in noun declension is the accentual distinction made by both languages between the " strong " and " weak " cases of monosyllabic nouns — the only difference in this respect being that in Sanskrit the accusative plural, as a rule, has the accent on the case-ending, and consequently shows the weak form of the stem; e.g. stem pad, iroS: pAdam, iroSa: padas, iroWs: padi, Tto&l: padas, TroSes: padds, iroSas: padam, woSav: patsu, iroal. In Sanskrit a few other classes of stems (especially present participles in ant, at), accented on the last syllable, are apt to yield their accent to heavy vowel (not consonantal) terminations; compare the analogous accentuation of Sanskrit and Greek stems in tar: pitdram, jraTtpo: pitre, irarpos: pitdras,_ 7rarep«: pitfshu, 7raTp(4)crt. The vocative, when heading a sentence (or verse-division), has invariably the accent on the first syllable; otherwise it is not accented. Finite verb-forms also, as a rule, lose their accent, except when standing at the beginning of a sentence or verse-division (a vocative not being taken into account), or in dependent (mostly relative) clauses, or in conjunction with certain particles. Of two or more co-ordinate verb-forms, however, only the first is unaccented. • In writing Sanskrit the natives, in different parts of India, generally employ the particular character used for writing their own vernacular. The character, however, most widely understood and i cie emploved by Hindu scholars, and used invariably in c amcters. European editions of Sanskrit works (unless printed in Roman letters) is the Nagari, or " town-script," also commonly called Devanagari, or nagari of the gods. The origin of the Indian alphabets is still enveloped in doubt. The oldest hitherto known specimens of Indian writing are a number of rock-inscriptions, containing religious edicts in Pali (the Prakrit used in the southern Buddhist scriptures), issued by the emperor Asoka (Piyadasi) of the Maurya dynasty, in 253—251 B.C., and scattered over the area of northern India from the vicinity of Pesha- war, on the north-west frontier, and Girnar in Gujarat, to Jaugada and Dhauli in Katak, on the eastern coast. The most western of these inscriptions — those found near Kapurdagarhi or Shahbaz- garhi, and Mansora — are executed in a different alphabet from the others. It reads from right to left, and is usually called the Arian Pali alphabet, it being also used on the coins of the Greek and Indo-Scythian princes of Ariana; while the other, which reads from left to right, is called the Indian Pali alphabet. The former— also called Kharoshflii or Gandhara alphabet (lipi) — which is manifestly derived from a Semitic (probably Aramaean) source, has left no traces on the subsequent development of Indian writing. Thelndo- Pali (or Brahmi) alphabet, on the other hand, from which the modern Indian alphabets are derived, is of more uncertain origin. The similarity, however, which several of its letters present to those of the old Phoenician alphabet (itself probably derived from the Egyptian hieroglyphics) suggests for this alphabet also the proba- bility of a Semitic origin, though, already at Aspka's time, the Indians had worked it up to a high degree of perfection and wonder- 1 We might compare the different treatment in Sanskrit of an and in bases (murdhdni-murdhnA ; vddini-vadina) ; for, though the latter are doubtless of later origin, their inflection might have been expected to be influenced by that of the former. Also a comparison of such forms as (devd) devanam (agni) agnlnam, and (dhenii) dheniinam, tells in favour of the i- and tt-vowels, as regards power of resistance, inasmuch as it does not require the accent in order to remain intact. fully adapted it to their peculiar scientific ends. The question as to the probable time and channel of its introduction can scarcely be expected ever to be placed beyond all doubt. The late Professor Biihler has, however, made it very probable that this alphabet was introduced into India by traders from Mesopotamia about 800 B.C. At all events, considering the high state of perfection it exhibits in the Maurya and Andhra inscriptions, as well as the wide area over which these are scattered, it can hardly be doubted that the art of writing must have been known to and practised by the Indians for various purposes long before the time of Asoka. The fact that no reference to it is found in the contemporary literature has probably to be accounted for by a strong reluctance on the part of the Brahmans to commit their sacred works to writing. As regards the numeral signs used in India, the Kharoshthi inscriptions of the early centuries of our era show a numerical system in which the first three numbers are represented by as many vertical strokes, whilst 4 is marked by a slanting cross, and 5-9 by 4(.+) i, &c., to 4(+)4(+)i; then special signs for 10, 20 and 100, the intervening multiples of 10 being marked in the vigesimal fashion, thus 5p = 2o(+)2o(+)io. This system has been proved to be of Semitic, probably Aramaic, origin. In the Brahmi in- scriptions up to the end of the 6th century of our era, another system is used in which 1-3 are denoted by as many horizontal strokes, and thereafter by special syllabic signs for 4-9, the decades 10-90, and for 100 and 1000. This system was most likely derived from hieratic sources of Egypt. The decimal system of cipher notation, on the other hand, which is first found used on a Gujarat inscription of A.D. 595, seems to be an invention of Indian astronomers or mathematicians, based on the existing syllabic (or word) signs or equivalents thereof. The first two Sanskrit grammars published by Europeans were those of the Austrian Jesuit Wesdin, called Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomaeo (Rome, 1790-1804). These were followed by those of H. C. Colebrooke (1805; based on Panini's system), Carey (1806), Wilkins (1808), Forster (1810), F. Bopp (1827), H. H. Wilson, Th. Benfey, &c. These, as well as those of Max Miiller, Monier Williams and F. Kielhorn, now most widely used, deal almost exclusively with classical Sanskrit; whilst that of W. D. Whitney treats the whole language historically; as does also J. Wackernagel's not yet completed Altindische Grammatik. The first Sanskrit dictionary was that of H. H. Wilson (1819; 2nd ed., 1832), which was followed by the great Sanskrit-German Worterbuch, published at St Petersburg in 7 vols. by Professors Bohtlingk and Roth. Largely based on this great thesaurus are the Sanskrit-English dictionaries by Sir M. Williams (2nd ed., 1899), Th. Benfey, A. A. Macdonell, &c. On the history of the Indian alphabets, cf. G. Biihler, Indische Paldographie (1896); A. C. Burnell, Elements of South Indian Palaeography (2nd ed., 1878), R. Gust's rdsume- in Jour. Roy. As. Soc., N.S. vol. xvi. II. SANSKRIT LITERATURE The history of Sanskrit literature labours under the same dis- advantage as the political history of ancient India from the total want of anything like a fixed chronology. In that vast range of literary development there is scarcely a work of importance the date of which scholars have fixed with absolute certainty. The original composition of most Sanskrit works can indeed be confidently assigned to certain general periods of literature, but as to many of them, and these among the most important, scholars have but too much reason to doubt whether they have come down to us in their original shape, or whether they have not undergone alterations and additions so serious as to make it impossible to regard them as genuine witnesses of any one phase of the development of the Indian mind. Nor can we expect many important chronological data from new materials brought to light in India. Though by such discoveries a few isolated spots may be lighted up here and there, the real task of clearing away the mist which at present obscures our view, if ever it can be cleared away, will have to be performed by patient research and a more minute critical examination of the multitudinous writings which have been handed down from the remote past. In the following sketch it is intended to take a rapid view of the more important works and writers in the several departments of literature. In accordance with the two great phases of linguistic develop- ment referred to, the history of Sanskrit literature readily divides itself into two principal periods — the Vedic and the classical. These periods partly overlap, and some of the later Vedic work are included in that period on account of the subjects with which they deal, and for their archaic style, rather than for any just claim to a higher antiquity than may have to be assigned to the oldest works of the classical Sanskrit. i6o SANSKRIT i. THE VEDIC PERIOD l of The term veda—i.e. " knowledge," (sacred) " lore "—embraces a body of writings the origin of which is ascribed to divine Samhitas. revelation (Sruti, literally "hearing"), and which forms the foundation of the Brahmanical system of religious belief. This sacred canon is divided into three or (according to a later scheme) four co-ordinate collections, likewise called Veda: (i) the Rig-veda, or lore of praise (or hymns); (2) the Sdma-veda, or lore of tunes (or chants); (3) the Yajur- veda, or lore of prayer (or sacrificial formulas); and (4) the Atharva-veda, or lore of the Atharvans. Each of these four Vedas consists primarily of a collection (samhita) of sacred, mostly poetical, texts of a devotional nature, called mantra. This entire body of texts (and particularly the first three collec- tions) is also frequently referred to as the trayi vidya, or threefold wisdom, of hymn (rich2), tune or chant (samari), and prayer (yajus) — the fourth Veda, if at all included, being in that case classed together with the Rik. The Brahmanical religion finds its practical expression chiefly in sacrificial performances. The Vedic sacrifice requires for its pr°Per Perf°nnance the attendance of four officiating priests, each of whom is assisted by one or more (usually three) subordinate priests, viz.: (i) the Hotor (or hotri, i.e. either " sacrificer," or " invoker "), whose chief business is to invoke the gods, either in short prayers pronounced over the several oblations, or in liturgical recitations (iastra), made up of various hymns and detached verses; (2) the Udgalar (udgatri), or chorister, who has to perform chants (stotra) in connexion with the hotar's recitations; (3) the Adhvaryu, or offering priest par excellence, who performs all the material duties of the sacrifice, such as the kindling of the fires, the preparation of the sacrificial ground and the offerings, the making of oblations, &c.; (4) the Brahman, or chief " priest," who has to superintend the performance and to rectify any mistakes that may be committed. Now, the first three of these priests stand in special relation to three of the Vedic Samhitas in this way: that the Samhitas of the Samaveda and Yajurveda form special song and prayer books, arranged for the practical use of the udgatar and adhvaryu respectively; whilst the Rik-samhita, though not arranged for any such practical purpose, contains the entire body of sacred lyrics whence the hotar draws the material for his recitations. The brahman, however, had no special text-book assigned to him, but was expected to be familiar with all the Samhitas as well as with the practical details of the sacrificial performance (see BRAHMAN and BRAHMANA). It sometimes happens that verses not found in our version of the Rik-samhita, but in the Atharvaveda- samhita, are used by the hotar; but such texts, if they did not actually form part of some other version of the Rik— as Sayana in the introduction to his commentary on the Rik-samhita assures us that they did — were probably inserted in the liturgy subsequent to the recognition of the fourth Veda. The several Samhitas have attached to them certain theological prose works, called Brahmana, which, though subordinate in authority to the Mantras or Samhitas, are like them held to be divinely revealed and to form part of the canon. The chief works of this class are of an exegetic nature, — their purport being to supply a dogmatic exposition of the sacrificial ceremonial and to explain the mystic import of the different rites and utterances included therein (see BRAHMANA). More or less closely connected with the Brahmanas (and in a few exceptional cases with Samhitas) are two classes of treatises, called Aranyaka and Upanishad. The Aranyakas, i.e. works " relating to the forest," being intended to be read by those who have retired from the world and lead the life of anchorites, do not greatly differ in character and style from the Brahmanas, 1 J. Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts (5 vols., 2nd ed.) forms the most o"!PJete general survey of the results of Vedic research. The combination ch, used (in conformity with the usual English practice) in this sketch of the literature, corresponds to the simple c— as r» does to r— in the scheme of the alphabet. Hrgh- [VEDIC PERIOD but like them are chiefly ritualistic, treating of special cere- monies not dealt with, or dealt with only imperfectly, in the latter works, to which they thus stand in the relation Xnayabu of supplements. The Upanishads, however, are of a W purely speculative nature, and must be looked upon as t/"an/" the first attempts at a systematic treatment of meta- *bads' physical questions. The number of Upanishads hitherto known is very considerable (about 170); but, though they nearly all profess to belong to the Atharvaveda, they have to be assigned to very different periods of Sanskrit literature — some of them being evidently quite modern productions. The oldest treatises of this kind are doubtless those which form part of the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas of the three older Vedas, though not a few others which have no such special connexion have to be classed with the later products of the Vedic age.3 As the sacred texts were not committed to writing till a much later period, but were handed down orally in the Brahmanical schools, it was inevitable that local differences of reading should spring up, which in course of time gave rise to a number of independent versions. Such different text-recensions, called Sakha (i.e. branch), were at one time very numerous, but only a limited number have survived. As regards the Samhitas, the poetical form of the hymns, as well as the concise style of the sacrificial formulas, would render these texts less liable to change, and the dis- crepancies of different versions would chiefly consist in various readings of single words or in the different arrangement of the textual matter. But the diffuse ritualistic discussions and loosely connected legendary illustrations of the Brahmanas offered scope for very considerable modifications in the tradi- tional matter, either through the ordinary processes of oral transmission or through the special influence of individual teachers. Besides the purely ceremonial matter, the Brahmanas also contained a considerable amount of matter bearing on the correct interpretation of the Vedic texts; and, indeed, vcdBaras the sacred obligation incumbent on the Brahmans of handing down correctly the letter and" sense of those texts necessarily involved a good deal of serious grammatical and etymological study in the Brahmanical schools. These literary pursuits could not but result in the accumulation of much learned material, which it would become more and more desirable to throw into a systematic form, serving at the same time as a guide for future research. These practical requirements were met by a class of treatises, grouped under six different heads or subjects, called Vedangas, i.e. members, or limbs, of the (body of the) Veda. None of the works, however, which have come down to us under this designation can lay any just claim to being considered the original treatises on their several subjects; they evidently represent a more or less advanced stage of scientific development. Though a few of them are composed in metrical form— especially in the ordinary epic couplet, the anushtubh Sloka, consisting of two lines of sixteen syllables (or of two octosyllabic padas) each— the majority belong to a class of writings called sutra, i.e. " string," consisting of _. strings of rules in the shape of tersely expressed aphorisms, intended to be committed to memory. The Sutras form a connecting link between the Vedic and the classical periods of literature. But, although these treatises, so far as they deal with Vedic subjects, are included by the native authorities among the Vedic writings, and in point of language may, generally speaking, be considered as the latest products of the Vedic age, they have no share in the sacred title of Sruti or revelation. They are of human, not of divine, origin. Yet, as the production of men of the highest standing, profoundly versed in Vedic lore, the Sutras are regarded as works of great authority, second only to that of the revealed Scriptures; and their relation to the latter is expressed in the generic title of Smriti, or Tradition, usually applied to them. 8 Cf. P Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads (Edinburgh, 1906), where these treatises are classified; Jacob, A Concordance to the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavadglta (Bombay S.S., 1891) VEDIC PERIOD] SANSKRIT 161 The six branches of Vedic science, included under the term Vedanga, are as follows: — 1. Siksha, or Phonetics. — The privileged position of representing this subject is assigned to a small treatise ascribed^ to the great grammarian Panini, viz. the Paninlya siksha, extant Phonetics. !>n two different (Rik and Yajus) recensions. But neither this treatise nor any other of the numerous sikshas which have recently come to light can lay claim to any very high age. Scholars, however, usually include under this head certain works, called Pratisakhya, i.e. " belonging to a certain saklia or recension," which deal minutely with the phonetic peculiarities of the several Samhitas, and are of great importance for the textual criticism of the Vedic Samhitas. 2. Chhandas, or Metre. — Tradition makes the Chhandah-sutra of Pingala the starting-point of prosody. The Vedic metres, however, occupy but a small part of this treatise, and they are Metre. evidently dealt with in a more original manner in the Nidana-sutra of the Samaveda.and in a chapter of theRik-pratisakhya. For profane prosody, on the other hand, Pingala's treatise is rather valuable, no less than 160 metres being described by him. 3. Vyakarana, or Grammar. — Panini's famous grammar is said to be the Vedanga; but it marks the culminating point of Grammar. grammatjcai research rather than the beginning, and besides treats chiefly of the post-Vedic language. 4. Nirukta, or Etymology. — Yaska's Nirukta is the traditional representative of this subject, and this important work certainly _. deals entirely with Vedic etymology and explanation. It Etymology. cons;stSj jn the first place, of strings of words in three chapters: (i) synonymous words; (2) such as are purely or chiefly Vedic; and (3) names of deities. These lists are followed by Yaska's commentary, interspersed with numerous illustrations. Yasika, again, quotes several predecessors in the same branch of science; and it is probable that the original works on this subject consisted merely of lists of words similar to those handed down by him. 5. Jyotisha, or Astronomy. — Although astronomical calculations are frequently referred to in older works in connexion with the performance of sacrifices, the metrical treatise which has Astronomy. come